Editing Islamic art (section)

== Painting ==
[[File:Khamseh Nizami 001.jpg|thumb|upright|Scene from the ''[[Khamsa of Nizami]]'', Persian, 1539–43]]
{{see also|Islamic miniature|Arabic miniature|Persian miniature|Ottoman miniature|Mughal miniature}}

For a long time, Islam was considered aniconic. Existing pictures among the Muslim royalty have been described as an "aberration" by [[Thomas Walker Arnold]] and ascribed to only a later Persinate and Turkic cultural period.<ref name="Barry, M. A. 1535 p. 49">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 49</ref> However, figurative arts existed since the formative stage of Islam.<ref name="Barry, M. A. 1535 p. 49"/> Such arts have been boasted by Arabic speaking caliphats of Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordova, inspired by Sasanid and Byzantine models. Figurative arts enjoyed prestige among both orthodox Sunni circles as well as Shia Muslims.<ref name="Barry, M. A. (2004) p. 40">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 40</ref> The disappearance of royal-sponsored figurative arts in Arabic-speaking lands at a later period is best explained by the overthrow of their ruling dynasties and reduction of most their territories to Ottoman provincial dependencies, not by religious prohibition.<ref name="Barry, M. A. 1535 p. 50">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 50</ref> Another drawback for Arnold's argument against the religious value of figurative arts in Islamic culture is, that a sizable number of rulers ordering figurative arts in the 14th-17th century, were religious zealots proclaiming to spread and enforce the laws of the sharia.<ref name="Barry, M. A. 1535 p. 50"/>

[[File:Royal figure enthroned and surrounded by Jinn of the Earth.png|thumb|Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century bowl. The enthroned Seljuk ruler next to his messengers followed by jinn.]]
Although not many early examples survived, human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands, notably several of the [[Umayyad Desert Castles]] (c. 660–750), and during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (c. 749–1258).<ref>{{cite book|author1=J. Bloom |author2=S. Blair |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc.|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-530991-1|pages=192 and 207|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=cairo+egypt+miniature+paintings+mamluk&pg=RA1-PA192}}</ref> Prior to the early 14th century, a halo was a common symbol to designate rulers. Under Asian influence, the halo as a symbol of sacredness was replaced by a flame.<ref name="Barry, M. A. (2004) p. 59">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 59</ref> Reminiscent of the Islamic prophet Solomon, rulers were often depicted as sitting on a throne endowed with religious symbols.<ref name="Barry, M. A. (2004) pp. 63-66">Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 63-66</ref> An ivory casket carved in early eleventh century Cordova shows a Spanish Muslim ruler holding a cup seated upon a lion throne, similar to that of Solomon.<ref name="Barry, M. A. (2004) pp. 63-66"/> A late 12th–13th century bowl depicts an enthroned Seljuk ruler with messengers to either side and headed winged [[jinn]].<ref>On the Exercise of Coastal Control through Observation and Long Distance Communication Systems in Seljuk Territory in the XIIIth Century</ref> Other usage of early figurative arts are illustrations of animal fables. Many of them are of Sanskrit origin and translated into Middle Persian in the sixth century for delight, ethical discussion, and political edification. In the 8th century, they were translated into Arabic.<ref name="Barry, M. A. (2004) pp. 63-66"/>

Although there has been a tradition of wall-paintings, especially in the [[Persianate]] world, the best-surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the [[miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] in [[illuminated manuscript]]s, or later as a single page for inclusion in a ''[[muraqqa]]'' or bound album of miniatures and [[calligraphy]]. The tradition of the [[Persian miniature]] has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the [[Ottoman miniature]] of Turkey and the [[Mughal miniature]] in India. The term "Persian miniature" refers whereby to the language used to decorate the images, and should not obscure its ties to Arabic imagery.<ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 27</ref>

[[File:Siyah Qalem - Hazine 2153, s.31b.jpg|thumb|Portrayal of demons in the style of Siyah Qalem. Siyah Qalem Hazine 2153, s.31b]]

[[Siyah Qalam]] (Black Pen), frequently depicts anecdotes charged with Islamic imagery about the [[nafs|animal souls]] (''nafs'') and the "[[Ruh|ruling soul]]" (''rūḥ''). Most human characters are clothed like [[dervish]]es and bearded like ascetics in Islamic tradition. Animals often feature as symbol of the lower and untaimed self. The abstract forces to tame the physical body are depicted in the forms of [[demon]]s (''dīv'') and [[Angels in Islam|angels]].<ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 278-283. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 278-283</ref>

Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a birds-eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours, which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th.

Since the mid-20th century following the departure of the Dutch colonialists, several Indonesian painters combined [[Abstract Expressionism]] with geometric forms, Indonesian symbols and [[Islamic calligraphy]], creating religiously influenced [[Abstract Art]]. The spiritual centre of this movement is the [[Bandung Institute of Technology]] (ITB), with leading teachers such as [[Abdul Djalil Pirous|A.D. Pirous]], [[Ahmad Sadali]], [[Mochtar Apin]] and [[Umi Dachlan]] as their main representatives.

In the 21st century, iconophobic followers of various [[Islamism|Islamist groups]], such as the [[Taliban]], aim to destroy forms of Islamic figurative depictions.<ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 312</ref> Motivated by [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi mentors]] ([[Wahhabism]]), the Taliban launched an attack on arts in March 2001 in [[Afghanistan]].<ref>Barry, M. A. (2004). Figurative art in medieval Islam and the riddle of Bihzad of Herat (1465-1535). Flammarion. 40</ref> The religious justification derives from a [[hadith]] mentioned by [[Sahih Bukhari]]. Others see the rejection of iconography as rooting in a strict aversion to depiction of God throughout Islamic tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref>