Editing Janet Frame (section)

== Literary career ==

=== 1957–1989 ===
Frame left New Zealand in late 1956, and the next seven years were most prolific in terms of publication. She lived and worked in Europe, primarily based in London, with brief sojourns to [[Ibiza]] and [[Andorra]].<ref>[[#refFrame1991|Frame 1991]], pp. 325–63</ref><ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p. 144.</ref> In May 1958 she legally changed her name to '''Nene Janet Paterson Clutha''', in part to make herself more difficult to locate and in part to recognise Māori leader [[Tamati Waka Nene]], whom she admired, and the [[Clutha River]], which was a source of creative inspiration.<ref name="DNZB" /><ref name="McLauchlan">{{cite news |last1=McLauchlan |first1=Gordon |title=A literary angel mourned |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/a-literary-angel-mourned/JFNOP75MRYHI5LIHRQRXR2URJE/ |access-date=30 January 2004 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=30 January 2004}}</ref> Frame still struggled with anxiety and depression, and in September 1958 admitted herself<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p. 184.</ref> to the [[Maudsley Hospital|Maudsley]] in London. American-trained psychiatrist Alan Miller, who studied under [[John Money]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]], proposed that she had never suffered from schizophrenia.<ref>[[#refFrame1991|Frame 1991]], pp. 374–5</ref><ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p. 186.</ref> In an effort to alleviate the ill effects of her years spent in and out of psychiatric hospitals, Frame then began regular therapy sessions with psychiatrist [[Robert Hugh Cawley]], who encouraged her to pursue her writing. Frame dedicated seven of her novels to Cawley.<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 196–7.</ref>

Frame returned to New Zealand in 1963, though not before spending a short period of time living in rural north Suffolk (near the town of [[Eye, Suffolk|Eye]]) which gave her the inspiration for her 1965 novel ''The Adaptable Man''. She accepted the [[Robert Burns Fellowship|Burns Fellowship]] at the University of Otago in 1965.<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 278–282, 283–6, 292, 298, 3000, 330, 378, 517, 518.</ref> She later lived in several parts of New Zealand's North Island, including Auckland, [[Taranaki Region|Taranaki]], [[Wanganui]], the [[Horowhenua]], [[Palmerston North]], [[Waiheke Island|Waiheke]], [[Stratford, New Zealand|Stratford]], [[Browns Bay, New Zealand|Browns Bay]] and [[Levin, New Zealand|Levin]].<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 392–3.</ref>

During this period Frame travelled extensively, occasionally to Europe, but principally to the United States, where she accepted residencies at the [[MacDowell Colony|MacDowell]] and [[Yaddo]] artists' colonies.<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 317–20, 324, 333, 337–40, 342–5, 347–8, 355, 358, 364, 442, 443–5.</ref> Partly as a result of these extended stays in the U.S., Frame developed close relationships with several Americans.<ref>King, Michael. "Janet Frame: Antipodean phoenix in the American chicken coop." ''Antipodes: A North American Journal of Australian Literature'' 15:(2): 86–87; December 2001.</ref> These included the painter [[Theophilus Brown]] (whom she later referred to as "the chief experience of my life"<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p. 347.</ref>) and his long-time partner [[Paul John Wonner]], the poet [[May Sarton]], [[John Phillips Marquand]] and [[Alan Lelchuk]]. Frame's one-time university tutor/counsellor and longtime friend John Money worked in North America from 1947 onwards, and Frame frequently based herself at his home in [[Baltimore]].<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 279–80.</ref>

In the 1980s Frame authored three volumes of autobiography (''To the Is-land'', ''An Angel at my Table'' and ''The Envoy from Mirror City'') which collectively traced the course of her life to her return to New Zealand in 1963.<ref name=FrameAutobio/> The Australian novelist [[Patrick White]] described the first two volumes as "amongst the wonders of the world".<ref name="Marr">{{cite book |author-link=Patrick White |last1=White |first1=Patrick |title=Letter to Ingmar Björkstén |date=3 December 1985 |page=607}}</ref> Director Jane Campion and screenwriter [[Laura Jones (screenwriter)|Laura Jones]] adapted the trilogy for television broadcast. It was eventually released as an award-winning feature film, ''[[An Angel at My Table]]''. Actresses [[Kerry Fox]], Alexia Keogh and Karen Fergusson portrayed the author at various ages. Frame's autobiographies sold better than any of her previous publications,<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 470, 490–1, 495, 497, 506.</ref> and Campion's successful film adaptation of the texts<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 448, 460, 466–67, 473–4, 484, 491–92, 495–6, 498, 511.</ref> introduced a new generation of readers to her work. These successes increasingly pushed Frame into the public eye.

In the [[1983 Birthday Honours (New Zealand)|1983 Queen's Birthday Honours]], Frame was appointed a [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]], for services to literature.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=49376 |date=11 June 1983 |page=34 |supp=2}}</ref> That year, ''To the Is-land'' also received the [[Ockham New Zealand Book Awards|Goodman Fielder Wattie Book of the Year Award]], the top literary prize in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite web |title=Past Winners: 1983 |url=https://www.nzbookawards.nz/new-zealand-book-awards/past-winners/?year=1983 |website=New Zealand Book Awards |access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref>

Frame intended the autobiographies to "set the record straight" regarding her past and in particular her mental status.<ref>Frame, Janet. "My Say." Interview with Elizabeth Alley. Concert Programme. Radio New Zealand, Wellington, NZ. 27 April 1983. Rpt ''In the Same Room: Conversations with New Zealand Writers.'' Ed. Elizabeth Alley and Mark Williams. Auckland: Auckland UP, 1992.</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p. 433.</ref> However, critical and public speculation has continued to focus on her mental health.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In 2007, after Frame's death, ''[[The New Zealand Medical Journal]]'' published an article by a medical specialist who proposed that Frame may have been on the [[autism spectrum]],<ref name=AbrahamsonAutism>{{cite web|last=Abrahamson |first=Sarah |title=Did Janet Frame have high-functioning autism? |url=http://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/abstract.php?id=2747 |access-date=2008-05-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021092648/https://nzma.org.nz/journal/abstract.php?id=2747 |archive-date=21 October 2008 }}</ref> a suggestion that was disputed by the author's literary executor.<ref>Hann, Arwen. "Autism Claim Draws Fire from Family, Mum." ''The Press'' [NZ]. 22 October 2007: 10.</ref><ref name=SharpMind>Sharp, Iain. "Frame of Mind" ''Sunday Star Times'' [NZ]. 21 October 2007: C8.</ref><ref>Smith, Charmian. "Putting Janet in the Frame." ''Otago Daily Times'' [NZ]. 27 October 2007: 45.
</ref><ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p.208.</ref>

During her lifetime, Frame's work was principally published by American firm [[George Braziller]], garnering numerous literary prizes in her native New Zealand, and the [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize]] in 1989 for her final novel, ''[[The Carpathians]]''.

=== 1990–2000 ===
On 6 February 1990, Frame was the sixteenth appointee to the [[Order of New Zealand]],<ref>"Honours and Awards" (15 February 1990) 23 ''[[New Zealand Gazette]]'' 445 at 446.</ref><ref name = "DPMC" /> the nation's highest civil honour. Frame also held foreign membership of the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] and, in her native New Zealand, received two honorary doctorates as well as the status of cultural icon.<ref>{{cite web|title=The New Zealand Edge|url=http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/frame.html|publisher=Nzedge.com|access-date=2012-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227164728/http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/frame.html|archive-date=27 December 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Rumours occasionally circulated portraying Frame as a contender for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], most notably in 1998, after a journalist spotted her name at the top of a list later revealed to have been in alphabetical order,<ref>MacLeod, Scott. "Reclusive Frame tipped as leading Nobel candidate." ''New Zealand Herald''. 2 October 2003.</ref><ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], pp. 456, 470, 497, 514.</ref> and again five years later, in 2003, when [[Åsa Beckman]], the influential chief literary critic at the Swedish daily ''[[Dagens Nyheter]]'', wrongly predicted that Frame would win the prestigious prize.<ref>Fox, Gary. "Sth African J M Coetzee awarded Nobel prize for Literature, dashing hopes of NZ writer Janet Frame." ''IRN News''. 3 October 2003</ref>

Frame's writing became the focus of academic criticism from the late 1970s, with approaches ranging from [[Marxist philosophy|Marxist]] and [[Social realism|social realist]], to [[Feminist theory|feminist]] and [[poststructuralist]]. In later years, book-length monographs on Frame were published. These included Patrick Evans’s bio-critical contribution for the "Twayne's World Authors Series," ''Janet Frame'' (1977), Gina Mercer's feminist reading of the novels and autobiographies, ''Janet Frame: Subversive Fictions'' (1994), and Judith Dell Panny's allegorical approach to the works, ''I have what I gave: The fiction of Janet Frame'' (1992). A collection of essays edited by Jeanne Delbaere was first published in 1978, with a revised edition released under the title ''The Ring of Fire: Essays on Janet Frame'' in 1992. That same year, Dunedin's University of Otago hosted a conference dedicated to a discussion of Frame's work. Many of the papers were published in a special issue of ''The Journal of New Zealand Literature''.

[[File:WrestlingWithTheAngel.jpg|right|thumb|''Wrestling with the Angel''. The front cover of New Zealand historian [[Michael King (historian)|Michael King]]'s award-winning biography on Frame, first published in 2000.]]

In 2000, New Zealand historian [[Michael King (historian)|Michael King]] published his authorised biography of Frame, ''Wrestling with the Angel''. The book was simultaneously released in New Zealand and North America, with British and Australian editions appearing in later years.<ref name=FrameAutobio/> King's award-winning and exhaustive work attracted both praise and criticism. Some questioned the extent to which Frame guided the hand of her biographer,<ref>[[Harry Ricketts|Ricketts, Harry]]. "A life within the frame." ''[[The Lancet]]'' [UK] 10 November 2001: 1652.</ref><ref>Wilkins, Damien. "In the Lock-Up." ''Landfall'' 201 [NZ] May 2001: 25–36</ref><ref>Evans, Patrick. "Dr. Clutha’s Book of the World: Janet Paterson Frame, 1924–2004." Journal of New Zealand Literature 22: 15–3.</ref> while others argued that he had failed to come to terms with the complexity and subtlety of his subject.<ref>Wikse, Maria. "Materialisations of a Woman Writer: Investigating Janet Frame's Biographical Legend" Bern (SW): Peter Lang, 2006.</ref> Adding to the controversy, King openly admitted that he withheld information "that would have been a source of embarrassment and distress to her," and that he adopted publisher Christine Cole Catley's notion of "compassionate truth." This advocates "a presentation of evidence and conclusions that fulfil the major objectives of biography, but without the revelation of information that would involve the living subject in unwarranted embarrassment, loss of face, emotional or physical pain, or a nervous or psychiatric collapse." King defended his project and maintained that future biographies on Frame would eventually fill in the gaps left by his own work.<ref>King, Michael. "The Compassionate Truth" ''Meanjin Quarterly'' 61.1 (2002) 34
</ref>

===Death and posthumous publications===
Frame died in Dunedin in January 2004, aged 79, from [[acute myeloid leukaemia]], shortly after becoming one of the first recipients of the [[Arts Foundation of New Zealand#Icon Award|Arts Foundation of New Zealand Icon Awards]], established to celebrate and acknowledge New Zealand artists who have achieved the highest standards of artistic expression.<ref>Herrick, Linda. "Belated recognition for 'icons' of arts." ''New Zealand Herald'' 2 July 2003</ref><ref>Kitchin, Peter. "Daring to be different." ''The Dominion Post'' [NZ] 9 July 2003.</ref> A number of works have been published posthumously, including a volume of poetry titled ''The Goose Bath'', which was awarded New Zealand's top poetry prize in 2007. This generated a minor controversy among critics who felt the posthumous prize "set an awkward precedent".<ref>"Good for the Gander" ''The Listener'' (NZ) 18 August 2007</ref><ref>Moore, Christopher. "Dubious Decision" ''The Press'' (Christchurch, NZ), 1 August 2007</ref> A novella, ''Towards Another Summer,'' was also published posthumously, a work inspired by a weekend Frame spent with British journalist [[Geoffrey Moorhouse]] and his family.<ref>[[#refKing2000|King 2000]], p. .</ref><ref>Moorehouse, Geoffrey. "Out of New Zealand" ''Guardian'' [UK] 16 November 1962.</ref> In 2008, two previously unpublished short stories set in mental hospitals appeared in ''The New Yorker.''<ref>Mathews, Philip.  "Back on the page" ''The Press'' (Christchurch, NZ), 26 July 2008</ref> Another previously unpublished short story was carried in ''The New Yorker'' in 2010.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Frame |first=Janet |url=http://www.newyorker.com/fiction/features/2010/04/05/100405fi_fiction_frame |title=Janet Frame: "Gavin Highly" |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=2012-10-23}}</ref> In March 2011, the New Zealand branch of [[Penguin Books]] acquired the rights to publish three new editions of Frame's work. These were: ''Janet Frame in Her Own Words'' (2011), a collection of interviews and nonfiction, ''Gorse is Not People: New and Uncollected Stories'' (2012) (published in the US as ''Between My Father and the King: New and Uncollected Stories''), and the novel ''In the Memorial Room'' (2013).

In 2010, ''Gifted,'' a novel by New Zealand academic and former Frame biographer Patrick Evans, was published and subsequently shortlisted for the [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize]]. The story is a fictionalised account of the relationship between Janet Frame and Frank Sargeson during her time living as a guest on his [[Takapuna]] property in 1955–56<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victoria.ac.nz/vup/2010titleinformation/gifted.aspx |title=gifted |publisher=Victoria.ac.nz |date=2008-06-18 |access-date=2012-10-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003012051/http://www.victoria.ac.nz/vup/2010titleinformation/gifted.aspx |archive-date= 3 October 2012 }}</ref> – an era recounted in a number of works by Frame and her contemporaries and dramatised in Campion's film, ''An Angel at My Table'' (1990).<ref>See: Sargeson, Frank. ''More than Enough: A Memoir'' (1975); King, Michael. ''Frank Sargeson: A Life'' (1995); Stead, CK. ''All Visitors Ashore'' (1985); Frame, Janet. ''An Autobiography'' (1989); King, Michael. ''Wrestling with the Angel: A Life of Janet Frame ''(2000).</ref> In 2013, Evans' novel was adapted for the stage, premiering at the [[Christchurch Arts Festival]] on 22 August 2013, followed by extended tour of New Zealand's north and south islands. While garnering positive critical reviews,<ref>{{cite web|title=Writers' stories intertwine |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/entertainment/arts/writers-stories-intertwine |website=[[Otago Daily Times]] |access-date=30 December 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20161230090636/https://www.odt.co.nz/entertainment/arts/writers-stories-intertwine |archive-date=30 December 2016 |date=5 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki-daily-news/entertainment/9100390/Literary-heavyweights-presented-in-gifted-light|title=Literary heavyweights presented in gifted light|first=Jo|last=Hills|date=29 August 2013|via=Stuff.co.nz}}</ref> the promotion and staging of the production drew fierce criticism from Frame's literary executor and niece, Pamela Gordon, who maintained it "was designed to demean Frame."<ref name="stuff.co.nz">{{cite web|last1=Gates |first1=Charli |title=Play's creators reject criticism |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/arts-fest-2013/9081996/Plays-creators-reject-criticism |website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |access-date=30 December 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130905051527/http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/arts-fest-2013/9081996/Plays-creators-reject-criticism |archive-date= 5 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gates |first1=Charlie |title=Playwright accused of demeaning Frame |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/8950383/Playwright-accused-of-demeaning-Frame |website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |access-date=30 December 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130905051528/http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/8950383/Playwright-accused-of-demeaning-Frame |archive-date= 5 September 2013 |language=en |date=23 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Matthews |first1=Philip |title=The limits of literary licence |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/arts-fest-2013/9092881/The-limits-of-literary-licence |website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130905051522/http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/arts-fest-2013/9092881/The-limits-of-literary-licence |archive-date= 5 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Gordon, who has also criticised Campion's film for inaccuracies in its portrayal of Frame,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gordon|first1=Pamela|title=An Angel @ My Blog: Larger than Life|url=http://slightlyframous.blogspot.com/2013/02/larger-than-life.html|website=An Angel @ My Blog|access-date=30 December 2016|date=27 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gordon|first1=Pamela|title=An Angel @ My Blog: How much 'Jane' is there in Campion's 'Janet'?|url=http://slightlyframous.blogspot.com/2011/10/how-much-jane-is-there-in-campions.html|website=An Angel @ My Blog|access-date=30 December 2016|date=17 October 2011}}</ref> asserted that Evans' theatrical adaptation presented an unfaithful view of her famous relative.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fortune Favours the Fake|url=http://slightlyframous.blogspot.co.nz/2013/08/fortune-favours-fake.html|website=slightlyframous.blogspot.co.nz|date=19 August 2013 |access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref> Festival organiser Philip Tremewan defended the play,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gates|first1=Charlie|title=Playwright accused of demeaning Frame|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/art-and-stage/8950383/Playwright-accused-of-demeaning-Frame|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |access-date=30 December 2016|language=en|date=23 July 2013}}</ref> while director Conrad Newport maintained that Gordon was "overprotective of [Frame's] legacy."<ref name="stuff.co.nz"/> Evans generally avoided the controversy, stating, "I have publicised her work and popularised it for two to three generations of students. In ''Gifted'', the play and novel, you only have to look at the title to see what my attitude is. I really don't think I have anything to apologise for."<ref name="stuff.co.nz"/>

Frame's personal and literary papers were archived by the [[Hocken Collections]] of the [[University of Otago]]. In 2024, these archives were inscribed on the [[UNESCO]] [[Memory of the World Aotearoa New Zealand Ngā Mahara o te Ao]] register.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unescomow.nz/inscription/janet-frame-literary-and-personal-papers |title=Janet Frame: Literary and Personal Papers |website=[[Memory of the World Register|Memory of the World Aotearoa New Zealand Ngā Mahara o te Ao]] |access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref>