Editing Justin II (section)

==Reign==

=== Accession ===
Justinian I died childless on 14 November 565. {{Interlanguage link|Callinicus (eunuch)|pl|3=Kallinik (eunuch)|lt=Callinicus}}, the ''[[praepositus sacri cubiculi]]'', seems to have been the only witness to his dying moments, and claimed that Justinian had designated Justin, his nephew, as his heir in a deathbed decision.<ref>{{harvnb|Corippus|Cameron|1976|pp=89–90}}: ''In laudem lustini Augusti minoris'' 1.110–154</ref> This sidelined another relative and candidate for the throne, also named [[Justin (consul 540)|Justin]], who was son of [[Germanus (cousin of Justinian I)|Germanus]], cousin of Justinian. Modern historians suspect Callinicus may have fabricated the last words of Justinian to secure the succession for his political ally.{{sfn|Evans|1996|pp=263–264}} As historian [[Robert Browning (Byzantinist)|Robert Browning]] observed: "Did Justinian really bring himself in the end to make a choice, or did Callinicus make it for him? Only Callinicus knew."{{sfn|Browning|2003|p=165}}

In any case, Callinicus started alerting those most interested in the succession, originally various members of the [[Byzantine Senate|Senate]]. Then they jointly informed Justin and Sophia, offering the throne. Justin accepted after the traditional token show of reluctance, and with his wife Sophia, he was escorted to the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]].<ref>{{harvnb|Corippus|Cameron|1976|pp=89–91}}: ''In laudem lustini Augusti minoris'' 1.155–200</ref> The [[Excubitors]] blocked the palace entrances during the night, and early in the morning, [[John Scholasticus]], [[List of Constantinople patriarchs|Patriarch of Constantinople]], crowned the new ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]''. Only then was the death of Justinian and the succession of Justin publicly announced in the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Evans|1996|p=264}} Justin's [[Coronation of the Byzantine emperor#Ceremonial of the 5th–6th centuries |coronation]] was written in detail by [[Corippus]] in his panegyric ''In laudem lustini Augusti minoris (In praise of Justin the Younger)''.{{sfn|Corippus|Cameron|1976}}

Both the Patriarch and [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius]], [[Excubitors#Known commanders of the Excubitors|commander of the Excubitors]], had been recently appointed, with Justin having played a part in their respective appointments, in his role as Justinian's ''curopalates''. It is thus seen that they were willing to elevate their patron and ally to the throne.{{sfn|Evans|1996|p=264}}

Justin's first address to the senate contained criticisms of Justinian: "Let the world rejoice that whatever was not done or put into practice because of our father's old age has been corrected in the time of Justin." In the speech, he vowed to repay debts, restore the emptied treasury and promised not to confiscate senatorial properties.<ref>{{harvnb|Corippus|Cameron|1976|pp=99}}: ''In laudem lustini Augusti minoris'' 2.255–275</ref>

===Early reign===
[[File:Justin II Solidus Alexandria.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Solidus minted in Alexandria, Egypt {{circa|570}}]]

In the early days of his reign, Justin took a sharp about-turn from his uncle's policies.{{sfn|Lin|2021|p=142}} He repaid the treasury's debts and took a more reconciliatory stance toward the [[Byzantine senate|senatorial class]]. On 1 January 566, he became a [[Roman consul|consul]], thereby reviving a post Justinian had discontinued since 541. Justin and Sophia initially promised to make peace with Justin's cousin and rival to the throne, [[Justin (consul 540)|Justin]] (son of [[Germanus (cousin of Justinian I)|Germanus]]), but had him assassinated in Alexandria not long after. According to a hostile source, the imperial couple kicked his severed head.<ref>[[Evagrius Scholasticus]], ''Ecclesiastical History'' 5.2</ref>
[[File:39-manasses-chronicle.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Justin II ordering the arrest of [[Justin (consul 540)|Justin the Consul]]. Scene from the 12th century [[Constantine Manasses|Manasses Chronicle.]]]]
In 566 he reversed Justinian's ban on divorce by mutual consent, declaring that it resulted in spouses hating each other.<ref>Sarris, P. (2017). Emperor Justinian. In J. Witte, Jr & G. Hauk (Eds.), Christianity and Family Law: An Introduction (Law and Christianity, pp. 85-99). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108233255.008</ref> Under the pretext of not understanding the fragile human nature:
{{blockquote|Mankind has nothing more admirable than marriage: from it stem children and successive generations, the peopling of villages and cities, and society's best bond. Hence, it is our prayer that marriage should be so successful for those contracting it as never to be the work of an unlucky daemon, and that married couples should not split up without just cause for their marriage to be dissolved. But as it is difficult for this to be maintained for all mankind – in such a large population, it is outside the realms of possibility that some unreasonable enmities should not supervene – we have thought it appropriate to devise some remedy for this, in particular where the consequences of pettiness have escalated so far as to engender real, irreconcilable hatred between the partners.<ref>[[Novellae Constitutiones]] 140.</ref>}}

===Administration and financial policy===
After Justin paid off the debts, he burned the bonds of the treasury. He additionally remitted his subjects' tax arrears back to 560.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=320}} The contemporary [[John of Ephesus]] notes a rumour that his successor [[Tiberius II]] discovered piles of money Justin and Sophia gathered, possibly meaning that his reign generated a surplus.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=327}}<ref>John of Ephesus, ''Ecclesiastical History'' 3.3.11</ref>

He conceded greater control to the provincial elites. In 569, he allowed them to nominate their own [[Roman governor|governors]], and if the nominees pleased the court, eliminated their appointment fees, resulting in decreased imperial oversight of the provinces.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=320-321}}

=== Foreign policy ===
He discontinued Justinian's practice of buying off potential enemies. Immediately after his accession, Justin halted the payment of subsidies to the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], ending a truce that had existed since 558. This move upset the delicate balance of power in the [[Pannonian Basin]], since the Avar elites were forced to seek new sources of wealth to maintain their position and client networks. At first, this was agreeable for the Romans, since the Avars decided to raid the [[Franks]] instead of going into the Roman territory.{{sfn|Lin|2021|p=142}} But after the Avars and the neighbouring tribe of the [[Lombards]] had combined to [[Lombard–Gepid War (567)|destroy]] the [[Gepids]], from whom Justin had obtained the Danube fortress of [[Sirmium]] and the Gepid treasury, Avar pressure caused the Lombards to migrate West, and in 568 they invaded [[Italy]] under their king [[Alboin]]. They quickly overran the [[Po Valley]], and within a few years acquired a vast share of the [[Italian peninsula]].{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=322-323}} The Avars themselves crossed the Danube in 573 or 574, when the Empire's attention was distracted by troubles on the Persian frontier. They were only placated by the payment of a subsidy of 80,000 [[Solidus (coin)|solidi]] by Justin's successor Tiberius.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=326}}<ref name="Nor2">Norwich, John J. ''Byzanptium: the Early Centuries'' (London:Penguin 1988) p.571 gives this subsidy to Avars as 80,000 silver pieces.</ref>

The North and East frontiers were the main focus of Justin's attention. Justin began to cement an alliance with the [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turks]], the new [[Central Asian]] power that threatened both the Avars and [[Sassanian Empire|Persia]] from the mid 6th century. In 572 his refusal to pay tribute to the Persians in combination with overtures to the Turks led to [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591|a war]] with the Sassanid Empire. After two disastrous campaigns, in which the Persians under [[Khosrow I]] overran [[Roman Syria|Syria]] and [[Siege of Dara (573)|captured]] the strategically important fortress of [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]], Justin became inflicted with a severe mental illness.{{sfn|Nicholson|Canepa|Daryaee|2018}}
[[File:100 Nummi - Justin II - Carthage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|100 [[nummus|nummi]] coin of Justin II minted in Carthage. Helmeted and cuirass-wearing facing bust, holding shield Monogram; cross above, 100 below]]
Shortly after the [[smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire]] from [[Northern and Southern Dynasties|China]] by [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christian]] monks, the 6th-century Byzantine historian [[Menander Protector]] writes of how the [[Sogdia]]ns attempted to establish a direct trade of [[Silk Road|Chinese silk]] with the Byzantine Empire. After forming an alliance with the Sassanid ruler Khosrow I to defeat the [[Hephthalites|Hephthalite Empire]], [[Istämi]], the Göktürk ruler of the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]], was approached by Sogdian merchants requesting permission to seek an audience with the Sassanid king of kings for the privilege of traveling through Persian territories in order to trade with the Byzantines.<ref name="howard 2012 p133">Howard, Michael C., ''Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies'', the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 133.</ref> Istämi refused the first request, but when he sanctioned the second one and had the Sogdian embassy sent to the Sassanid king, the latter had the members of the embassy poisoned to death.<ref name="howard 2012 p133"/> Maniah, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi to send an embassy directly to Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered not only silk as a gift to Justin, but also proposed an alliance against Sassanid Persia. Justin agreed and sent an embassy to the Turkic Khaganate, ensuring the direct silk trade desired by the Sogdians.<ref name="howard 2012 p133"/><ref>Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History'', ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 168.</ref>

His foreign policy has received unfavorable assessments in the 20th century. In 1937, historian Previte-Orton criticized Justin as lacking realism, having overestimated Roman strength against foreign enemies.{{efn|Previte-Orton describes Justin as "a rigid man, dazzled by his predecessor's glories, to whom fell the task of guiding an exhausted, ill-defended Empire through a crisis of the first magnitude and a new movement of peoples". Previte-Orton continues, "In foreign affairs he took the attitude of the invincible, unbending Roman, and in the disasters which his lack of realism occasioned, his reason ultimately gave way. It was foreign powers which he underrated and hoped to bluff by a lofty inflexibility, for he was well aware of the desperate state of the finances and the army and of the need to reconcile the [[Monophysitism|Monophysites]]."<ref>[[Charles William Previté-Orton|Previte-Orton, Charles William]], ''The shorter Cambridge medieval history'' (Cambridge: University Press, 1952), p. 201.</ref>}}