Editing Keres language (section)

==Phonology==
Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 85 [[phoneme]]s, depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the [[World Atlas of Language Structures]], Keres is a language with a ''large'' consonant inventory.

The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between [[Voicelessness|voiceless]], [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and [[Ejective consonant|ejective]] consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average<ref>{{Cite book|title=Patterns of sounds|last=Ian.|first=Maddieson|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521113267|location=Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]|oclc=10724704}}</ref> number of [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and [[Affricate consonant|affricates]], the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in [[Stop consonant|stops]].

The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between [[Vowel length|long]] and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: /é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː/, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language.

===Consonants===
The chart below contains the consonants of the [[Proto-language|proto]]-Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from [[Wick R. Miller|Miller]] & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from ''The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo'' (1964), ''Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics'' (1987), and ''The Phonemes of Keresan'' (1946), and the ''Grammar of Laguna Keres'' (2005).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=A Comparative Sketch of Pueblo Languages: Phonology|publisher=Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics|year=1987}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Phonemes of Keresan|last=Spencer|first=Robert F.|year=1946}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!colspan="2" | 
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPAlink|m}}
|{{IPAlink|n}}
|{{IPAlink|ɲ}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>glottalized</small>
|{{IPAlink|mˀ}}
|{{IPAlink|nˀ}}
|{{IPAlink|ɲˀ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|p}} || {{IPAlink|t}} || {{IPAlink|c}} || || {{IPAlink|k}} || {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|pʰ}} || {{IPAlink|tʰ}} || {{IPAlink|cʰ}} || || {{IPAlink|kʰ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|pʼ}} || {{IPAlink|tʼ}} || {{IPAlink|cʼ}}
| || {{IPAlink|kʼ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|ts}}
|{{IPAlink|tʃ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʂ}}
|
|
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|tsʰ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʃʰ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʂʰ}}
|
|
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|tsʼ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʃʼ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʂʼ}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
| || {{IPAlink|s}} || {{IPAlink|ʃ}} || {{IPAlink|ʂ}} || 
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
| || {{IPAlink|sʼ}} || {{IPAlink|ʃʼ}} || {{IPAlink|ʂʼ}} || 
|
|-
!rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPAlink|w}} || {{IPAlink|ɾ}} || {{IPAlink|j}} ||
| 
|
|-
!<small>[[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|wˀ}} || {{IPAlink|ɾˀ}} || {{IPAlink|jˀ}} ||
|
|
|}

===Vowels===
Keresan vowels have a [[Phoneme|phonemic]] distinction in [[Vowel length|duration]]: all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from ''The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo'' (1964),<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo, Smithsonian Bulletin 191, Anthropological Papers, No. 69|last=Davis|first=Irvine|year=1964}}</ref> ''The Phonemes of Keresan'' (1946),<ref name=":1" /> and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987).<ref name=":2" />
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" |Long
! colspan="3" |Short
|-
!
!''Phonemic''
!''Phonetic''
!''Phonemic''
!''Phonetic''
!''Voiceless''
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''/iː/'''
|{{IPA|[i]}}
|'''/i/''' 
|[i ɪ]
|[ɪ̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]-[[Front vowel|front]]
| '''/eː/'''
|[eː]
|'''/e/'''
|[e ɛ æ]
|[e̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]-[[Central vowel|central]]
|'''/ɨː/'''
|[əː ɨː]
|'''/ɨ/'''
|[ə ɨ ɤ]
|[ɨ̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|'''/ɑː/'''
|[aː ɑː]
|'''/ɑ/'''
|[a ɑ]
|[ḁ] 
|- style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" |[[Close vowel|Back-close]]
|'''/oː/'''
|[oː]
|'''/o/'''
|[o]
|[o̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/uː/'''
|[uː]
|'''/u/'''
|[u ʊ o]
|[ʊ̥]
|}
Notes:
* Western Keres does not have phonemic /oː/ or /o/, though both vowels may occur phonetically.<ref name=":4" /> Eastern Keres words containing /o/ show /au/ in Western Keres.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan|last=Valiquette|first=Hilaire|year=1990}}</ref> For instance, the first vowel in the word-sentence ''Sraúka̠cha̠'' – “I see you”:
** Kotyit Keres: [ʂóːkʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥]
** Kʼawaika Keres: [ʂɑ̌ukʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥]

==== Voiceless vowels ====
All Keresan short vowels may be [[Voicelessness|devoiced]] in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Grammar of Laguna Keres|last=Lachler|first=Jordan|publisher=University of New Mexico Dissertation|year=2005|location=Albuquerque}}</ref> Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced.<ref name=":3" />
* Word-final devoicing: {{IPA|[pɑ̌ːkʊ̥]}} ''because''
* Word-medial devoicing: {{IPA|[ʔìpʰi̥ʃɑ́]}} ''white paint''

===Tones===
Acoma Keres has four [[Tone (linguistics)|lexical tones]]: high, low, falling and rising.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Grammar of Acoma Keresan|last=Maring|first=Joel M.|publisher=Indiana University Dissertation|year=1967}}</ref> Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!''Tones''
!examples
!translation
|- style="text-align:center;"
!High
|[tɨ́j], [áwáʔáwá]
|''here, matrilineal uncle''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Low
|[mùːtètsá]
|''young boy''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Rising
|[pɑ̌ːkʊ̥]
|''because''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Falling
|[ʔêː], [hêːk'a] 
|''and, whole part''
|}

===Syllable structure===

Most Keresan syllables take a CV(V) shape.<ref name=":4" /> The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Spencer|first=Robert|date=1947|title=Spanish Loanwords in Keresan|journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology|volume=3|issue=2|pages=130–146|doi=10.1086/soutjanth.3.2.3628729|s2cid=164169397}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!''Syllable type''
!examples
!translation
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CV
|[sʼà], [ʔɪ]shv́v
|''I have it, left'' 
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CVV
|[mùː]dedza, a[táù]shi
|''young boy'', ''cooking pot''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CCV
|[ʃkʰí]srátsʼa
|''I'm not fat''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CCVV
|[ʃtùː]sra
|''bluejay''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CVC
|í[miʔ], [kùm]banêeru
|''expression of fear, workmate'' (Spanish ''"compañero"'')
|}

Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters.
* Word-internal cluster: ''yʼâakạ srûunị'' ‘stomach’ /jˀɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni/ > [jɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni] ~ [jɑ̂ː'''kʂ'''ûːni]
* Word-final coda: ''úwàakạ'' ‘baby’; /úwɑ̀ːkḁ/ > [úwɑ̀ːkʰḁ] ~ [úwɑ̀ː'''kʰ''']

==== Phonotactics ====
The only sequence of consonants (i.e. [[consonant cluster]]) that occurs in native Keresan words is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the [[Syllable|syllable onset]]). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C<sub>1</sub>, it combines with alveolar and palatal C<sub>2</sub>, whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C<sub>2</sub>s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially.<ref name=":5" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | ''C<sub>1</sub>/C<sub>2</sub>''
! colspan="3" | ''Bilabial''
! colspan="3" | ''Alveolar''
! colspan="3" | ''Velar''
! colspan="3" | ''Postalveolar''
|-
!/p/
!/pʰ/
!/pʼ/
!/t/
!/tʰ/
!/tʼ/
!/k/
!/kʰ/
!/kʼ/
!/tʃ/
!/tʃʰ/
!/tʃʼ/
|- style="text-align:center;"
!/ʃ/
| colspan="3" |
|/ʃtáʊ̯rákʊ̥/
'''''shd'''áurákụ''

'frog, toad'
|/ʃtʰéràʃtʼíká/

'''''sht'''érashtʼígá''

'cricket'
|/ʃtʼìcɑ̀ːtʰɪ̥ʃɪ̥/
'''''shtʼ'''idyàatịshị''

'plot of land'
| colspan="3" |
|/ʃtʃɨ/
'''''shj'''v''

'upward'
|/ʃtʃʰúmúná/
'''''shch'''úmúmá''

'wasp'
|/ʃtʃʼísḁ/ 
'''''shchʼ'''ísạ''

'six'

|- style="text-align:center;"
!/ʂ/
|/ʂpúːná/
'''''srb'''úuná''

'water jug'
|/ʂpʰɑ̀ːtʼi/ 
'''''srp'''àat'i''

'mockingbird'
|/ʂpʼeruru/
'''''srpʼ'''eruru''

'it's full'

| colspan="3" |
|/ʂkɑ́ʂkɑ́ʊ̯kʼa/
'''''srg'''ásrgáukʼa''

'quail'
|/ʂkʰɨ́tútsʰɪ̥/

'''''srk'''v́dútsị''

'mound, hill'
|/ʂkʼàpɪ́hɪ́/
'''''srkʼ'''abíhí''

'female in-law'
| colspan="3" |
|}