Editing Kubera (section)

==Literature==
[[File:Kubera - Circa 1st Century CE - Kosi Kalan - ACCN 18-1506 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5710.JPG|thumb|Kubera, 1st century CE, [[Mathura Museum]].]]

===Early descriptions and parentage===
In the ''Atharvaveda''—where he first appears<ref name="Alain">{{cite book|last= Daniélou|first=Alain|title=The myths and gods of India|year=1964|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Company|pages=135–7|chapter=Kubera, the Lord of Riches}}</ref>—and the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', Kubera is the chief of evil spirits or spirits of darkness, and son of Vaishravana.<ref name = "monier"/><ref name = "williams"/> The ''Shatapatha Brahmana'' calls him the Lord of thieves and criminals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe44/sbe44104.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part V (SBE44): Thirteenth Kânda: XIII, 4, 3. Third Brâhmana (13.4.3.10)|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2017-06-23}}</ref> In the ''[[Manusmriti]]'', he becomes a respectable ''lokapala'' ("world protector") and the patron of merchants.<ref name = "S63">{{Harvnb|Sutherland|1991|p=63}}</ref> In the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Kubera is described as the son of ''[[Prajapati]]'' [[Pulastya]] and his wife Idavida, and the brother of sage [[Vishrava]]. Kubera is described as born from a cow. However, from the ''Purana''s, he is described as the grandson of Pulastya and the son of Vishrava and his wife [[Ilavida]] (or Ilivila or Devavarnini), daughter of the sage [[Bharadvaja]] or Trinabindu.<ref name = "Mani">{{cite book|author = Mani, Vettam|title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature|url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass|year = 1975|location = Delhi|isbn = 0-8426-0822-2|pages = [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/434 434]–7}}</ref><ref name="Alain"/><ref name = "H142"/><ref name = "williams">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=George Mason|title=Handbook of Hindu mythology|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-85109-650-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576071068/page/190 190–1]|chapter=Kubera|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576071068/page/190}}</ref>

By this time, though still described as an ''[[asura]]'', Kubera is offered prayers at the end of all ritual sacrifices.<ref name = "williams"/> His titles, such as "best of kings" and "Lord of kings" (The''[[Harivamsa]]'' indicates that Kubera is made "Lord of kings"), in contrast to the god-king of heaven, [[Indra]], whose title of "best of gods" led to the later belief that Kubera was a man. The early texts ''Gautama [[Dharmaśāstra|Dharmashastra]]'' and ''[[Apastamba]]'' describe him as a man. Only the ''[[Grhya Sutras#Grhya Sutras|Grihyasutra]]''s of Shankhayana and Hiranyakesin call him a god, and suggest offerings of meat, sesame seeds and flowers to him.<ref name="prakash"/><ref name = "H146">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|p=146}}</ref>

===Puranic and epic descriptions===

The ''Purana''s and the epics ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]'' grant Kubera unquestioned godhood.<ref name="prakash" /> Kubera also acquired the status of the "Lord of riches" and the wealthiest Deva. He also becomes a ''lokapala'' ("world protector") and [[Guardians of the directions|guardian (''dikapala'') of the North direction]], although he is also sometimes associated with the East.<ref name="H142" /><ref name="williams" /> Kubera's status as a ''lokapala'' and a ''dikpala'' is assured in the ''Ramayana'', but in the ''Mahabharata'', some lists do not include Kubera. Thus, Kubera is considered a later addition to the original list of ''Loka-pala''s, where the gods [[Agni]] or [[Soma (deity)|Soma]] appear in his place.<ref>For Loka-palas, {{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|pp=149–52}}</ref> This status, the ''Ramayana'' records, was granted to Kubera by [[Brahma]]—the creator-god and father of Pulastya—as a reward for his severe penance. Brahma also conferred upon Kubera the riches of the world (''[[Nidhi]]s''), "equality with gods", and the [[Pushpaka Vimana]], a flying chariot. Kubera then ruled in the golden city of [[Lanka]], identified with modern-day [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="Mani" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="H142" /> The ''Mahabharata'' says that Brahma conferred upon Kubera the lordship of wealth, friendship with Shiva, godhood, status as a world-protector, a son called ''Nalakubera''/''Nalakubara'', the Pushpaka Vimana and the lordship of the ''Nairrata'' demons.<ref name="H142" />

Both the ''Purana''s and the ''Ramayana'' feature the half-blood siblings of Kubera. Vishrava, Kubera's father, also married the ''[[rakshasa]]'' (demigod) princess [[Kaikesi]], who mothered four ''rakshasa'' children: [[Ravana]], the chief antagonist of the Ramayana, and his siblings, [[Kumbhakarna]], [[Vibhishana]], and [[Soorpanaka|Shurpanaka]].<ref name="Mani" /><ref name="williams" /> The ''Mahabharata'' regards Vishrava as the brother of Kubera, so Kubera is described as the uncle of Ravana and his siblings. It records that when Kubera approached Brahma for the favour of superseding his father Pulastya, Pulastya created Vishrava. To seek the favour of Vishrava, Kubera sent three women to him, by whom Vishrava begot his demon children.<ref name="H142" /><ref name="wilkins">{{cite book|last=Wilkins|first=W. J. |title=Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hmvp/hmvp39.htm|year=1990|publisher=Sacred texts archive|pages=388–93|isbn=1-4021-9308-4}}</ref> Ravana, after acquiring a boon of Brahma, drove Kubera away from Lanka and seized his Pushpaka Vimana, which was returned to Kubera after Ravana's death. Kubera then settled on Gandhamandana mountain, near [[Mount Kailash]] – the abode of the god [[Shiva]]—in the [[Himalayas]]. Sometimes, Kailash itself is called Kubera's residence. His city is usually called [[Alaka]] or Alaka-puri ("curl-city"), but also ''Prabha'' ("splendour"), ''Vasudhara'' ("bejeweled") and ''Vasu-sthali'' ("abode of treasures").<ref name="Mani" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="H142" /><ref name="Madan">{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/65 65]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> There, Kubera had a grove called ''Caitraratha'', where the leaves were jewels and the fruits were girls of heaven. There is also a charming lake called ''Nalini'' in the grove.<ref name="H142" /><ref name="wilkins" /> Kubera is often described as a friend of Shiva in the epics.<ref name="knapp" /> The ''[[Padma Purana]]'' says that Kubera prayed to Shiva for many years, and Shiva granted him the kingship of yakshas.<ref name="Mani" />

[[File:Kubera, the God of Riches LACMA M.69.13.8 (1 of 9).jpg|thumb|left|An 11th century Kubera, [[Karnataka]].]]
A description of Kubera's magnificent court appears in the ''Mahabharata'' as well as the ''[[Meghaduta]]''. Here, gandharvas and [[apsara]]s entertain Kubera. Shiva and his wife [[Parvati]] often frequent Kubera's court, which is attended by semi-divine beings like the ''[[vidyadhara]]s''; ''[[Kimpurusha Kingdom|kimpurusha]]s''; rakshasas; ''[[pishacha]]s''; as well as Padma and Shankha; personified treasures (''[[nidhi]]''); and Manibhadra, Kubera's chief attendant and chief of his army. Like every world-protector, Kubera has seven seers of the North in residence. Alaka is recorded to be plundered by Ravana once, and attacked by the [[Pandava]] prince, [[Bhima]] once.<ref name="prakash" /><ref name="Mani" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="H142" /><ref name="H144">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|pp=144–5}}</ref> Kubera's ''Nairrata'' army is described to have defeated king Mucukunda, who then defeated them by the advice of his guru [[Vashishta]]. [[Shukra]], the preceptor of the asuras, is also recorded to have defeated Kubera and stolen his wealth.<ref name="H147" /><ref name="Mani" /> Another major tale in the scriptures records how Kubera entertained the sage [[Ashtavakra]] in his palace.<ref name="H147" /><ref name="Mani" />

Kubera is the treasurer of the gods, and the overlord of the semi-divine yakshas, the ''[[guhyaka]]''s, ''[[kinnara]]''s and gandharvas, who act as his assistants and protectors of the jewels of the earth, as well as guardians of his city. Kubera is also the guardian of travelers and the giver of wealth to individuals, who please him. The rakshasas also serve Kubera,<ref name="knapp">{{cite book|last=Knapp|first=Stephen |title=The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination| year=2005|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=0-595-79779-2|pages=192–3}}</ref> however, some cannibalistic rakshasas are described to have sided with Ravana in the battle against Kubera.<ref name="H142" /> Kubera also developed as minor marriage-divinity. He is invoked with Shiva at weddings and is described as ''Kameshvara'' ("Lord of ''[[Kama]]'' – pleasure, desire etc.").<ref name="H148">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|p=148}}</ref> He is associated with fertility of the aquatic type.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sutherland|1991|p=61}}</ref>

The ''Purana''s and the ''Mahabharata'' record that Kubera married [[Bhadra]] ("auspicious"), or Riddhi ("prosperity"), daughter of the [[Danava (Hinduism)|demon]] Mura. She is also called ''Yakshi'' – a female yaksha, ''Kauberi'' ("wife of Kubera") and ''Charvi'' ("splendour"). They had three sons: [[Nalakuvara|Nalakubara]] ("Reed-axle"), [[Manibhadra|Manigriva]] ("Bejewled-neck") or Varna-kavi ("Colourful poet"), and Mayuraja ("king of animals resembling men"); and a daughter called Minakshi ("fish-eyed").<ref name="knapp" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="wilkins" />