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LMLK seal
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== Usage theories == [[File:LMLK seal (Hebron). Israel Museum, Jerusalem (2).JPG|thumb|LMLK jar of [[Hebron]] on display at the [[Israel Museum]] in [[Jerusalem]], 2013]] Beginning with the ''[[editio princeps]]'' by [[Charles Warren (British soldier)|Charles Warren]] in 1870, a diverse assortment of theories has been promulgated to explain their function.{{cn|date=October 2020}} Since the landmark excavations at [[Lachish]] by [[David Ussishkin]] during the 1970s,<ref>Published in Ussishkin, "The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish."</ref> which established the date of the seals to the reign of [[Hezekiah]], the number of feasible explanations has narrowed down to these (all associated with [[Hezekiah]].{{cn|date=May 2019}} * Military rations collected as an emergency during a short period (several months to a few years at most) preceding the [[Assyria]]n invasion by [[Sennacherib]] * Government taxes collected throughout the majority of [[Hezekiah]]'s reign (either 14 or 26 years depending on chronological interpretations) as a long-term economic buildup until the [[Assyria]]n invasion by [[Sennacherib]] * Religious [[tithe]]s collected throughout [[Hezekiah]]'s 29-year reign in response to his worship reformation following his accession (completely irrespective of the [[Assyria]]n invasion by [[Sennacherib]]){{cn|date=October 2020}} In support of the first two theories are the inscriptions, which can be read as the names of four places; in support of the third theory are the geographic statistics, which do not associate any of the four words to a particular place or region other than the entire southern kingdom of Judah. Furthermore, approximately 10β20 percent of the excavated jars and jar handles were stamped.{{cn|date=October 2020}} Depending on which of the above theories are preferred, several other aspects of the operation need interpretation: * The people who performed the stamping were either government officials working directly for King [[Hezekiah]] or [[Levite]]s and/or priests associated with [[Solomon]]'s [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. * The icons symbolize either royal stature or a religious nature ({{bibleref|Deuteronomy|32:11β12}}, {{bibleref|Ruth|2:12}}, {{bibleref|Psalm|36:7}}, {{bibleref|Psalm|57:1}}, {{bibleref|Psalm|61:4}}, {{bibleref|Psalm|91:4}}, and {{bibleref|Malachi|4:2}}). * The super-inscription, ''LMLK'', denotes the Judean government or a specific, divine being (consider its application to the Israelite [[YHWH]] as in {{bibleref|Psalm|10:16}}, {{bibleref|Isaiah|6:5}}, and {{bibleref|Zechariah|14:9}}). * The sub-inscriptions ([[Hebron]], [[MMST]], [[Socoh]], and [[Ziph (Judean Mountains)|Ziph]]) record either 4 places or 4 votive statements. Engraving styles indicate at least two, possibly five, people made the seals. The 21 types can be grouped together in five or six sets, but they may have been created or utilized in pairs based on quantities of their impressions found so far.{{cn|date=October 2020}} Researchers frequently use a lowercase "x" as a [[wildcard character]] when referring to a series such as x4C instead of using an uppercase "G", "H", "M", "S", or "Z" for the first letter designator. Likewise, an "x" can be used for the second letter designator when referring to all seals with the same word, such as H2x in lieu of H2D, H2T, and H2U. Thus far, significant quantities of x4C, x4L, and x2U stamps have been excavated from below the destruction layer caused by the [[Assyria]]n conquest of [[Sennacherib]], but only a single specimen each of the G2T and M2D stamps (excavated from [[Jerusalem]], which was not destroyed by [[Sennacherib]]). This suggests that 12 of the 21 seals were made prior to the attack, and the remaining 9 afterwards. The first significant evidence to support this datum came from the landmark excavations at [[Timnah]] led by [[George L. Kelm]] and [[Amihai Mazar]].<ref>Mazar and Panitz-Cohen, ''Timnah (Tel Batash) II''.</ref>
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