Editing Lament (section)

==Lament in Ancient Greece==
Ritual lament was intertwined with aspects of performance in Ancient Greece. Originally practiced as a part of funerary rites, lamentation was considered a musical and feminine form of expression that was used to appease the deceased. As lament was brought into popular culture, specifically Greek theater and literature, men participated in the tradition as well, but the act of lamentation itself was still closely associated with women.  

Performed primarily by women during the próthesis step of the burial, ritual lament in the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] and [[Homeric]] periods was a ritualized expression of emotion imbued with musical elements. The lament involved both verbal and physical actions, such as singing, wailing, tearing of the clothes, and beating the breast, all of which contributed to the sound of lamentation.<ref>Margaret Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, second ed. (Cambridge University Press) 2002. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_AlexiouM.Ritual_Lament_in_Greek_Tradition.2002.</ref> Depictions of lament can be found on vessels, funerary plaques, and other archeological remains, where the imagery of the women’s expressive actions contrast with the more static poses of the men.<ref>Terracotta Funerary Plaque, ca. 520–510 BCE, Greek, Attic, 54.11.5.The Met.https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/254801</ref> The gendering of ritual lamentation reflects the [[gender roles]] of the time, wherein women were perceived to be more prone to emotion in contrast to men, who were seen as creatures of logos.<ref>Weiss, Naomi. “NOISE, MUSIC, SPEECH: THE REPRESENTATION OF LAMENT IN GREEK TRAGEDY.” The American Journal of Philology 138, no. 2 (2017): 243–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26360827.</ref>  

In the Archaic and Homeric ages, lament was understood to be divided into two distinct parts: gôos and thrënos. Moving into the Classical period, however, gôos and thrënos were often used as interchangeably, particularly in Athenian [[tragedy]].<ref>Margaret Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, second ed. (Cambridge University Press) 2002. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_AlexiouM.Ritual_Lament_in_Greek_Tradition.2002.</ref>  Lamenting women appeared in works by well-known tragedians, such as Cassandra's lament in [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Agamenon]]'', Electra's lament in [[Sophocles]]' ''[[Electra]]'', and Hecuba's lament in [[Euripides]] '''[[Trojan Women]]''. Tragedians also developed another genre of lament, kommos, that appeared exclusively in tragedies.<ref>Margaret Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, second ed. (Cambridge University Press) 2002. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_AlexiouM.Ritual_Lament_in_Greek_Tradition.2002.</ref> Ritual lament also inspired male poets, who adopted the practice into more literary forms. Written laments could be addressed to the divine or personalized for a poet’s close friend.<ref>Bion, Lament for Adonis,Loeb Classical Library</ref><ref>Parthenius of Nicaea, Poetic Fragments, Loeb Classical Library</ref> 

'''Ritual Lament in Athens During the Age of Solon’s Laws'''

Athenian policymaker Solon placed restrictions on women’s participation in funerary rites. Solon’s laws set limitations on women’s dress and behavior, controlling the way that women were allowed to appear in public for funerary occasions. His laws also had an impact on the burial proceedings in relation to women’s roles, as he forbid “laceration of the flesh by mourners,” “bewailing” and the use of set lamentations.<ref>Plutarch, ''Lives. Solon'', Loeb Classical Library</ref> These policies could have been made to address the level of noise that accompanied the ritual lament step of funerals and to curb extravagance from the wealthy. However, Plutarch comments that Solon’s laws concerning women seemed, in general, “very absurd.” He expressed that Solon’s laws were rather unfavorable towards women, using examples such as Solon’s policies on sexual assault.<ref>Plutarch, ''Lives. Solon'', Loeb Classical Library</ref> Modern interpretations of these changes comment on the disruptive potential of the lament on a political level. In Athens, where logic and rationality were valued, the emotional nature of the lament was not viewed favorably by men in power.<ref>Dunham, Olivia (2014) "Private Speech, Public Pain: The Power of Women's Laments in
Ancient Greek Poetry and Tragedy," CrissCross: Vol. 1 : Iss. 1 , Article 2.</ref> 

'''Lament During the Festival of Adonia'''

The connection between lamentation and femininity is made apparent in the Athenian festival of Adonia. An event held exclusively for women, by women, the main purpose of this festival was to mourn the death of Adonis, the lover of the goddess Aphrodite.  During this festival, women participated in collective lamenting. Women took to the rooftops to perform their lament and held a procession in the streets.<ref>Simms, Ronda R. “Mourning and Community at the Athenian Adonia.” The Classical Journal 93, no. 2 (1997): 121–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3298134.</ref> In fragments of Sappho’s work, a lament for Adonis appears. Sappho’s work gives insight on some of the activities that may have occurred during this festival. In her poem, Sappho calls on women to engage in actions such as “beating your bosoms” and “rending your tunics.”<ref>Sappho, ''Fragments'', Loeb Classical Library</ref> These actions are the same activities that women would do for burial rituals. The Greek poet Bion also wrote a Lament for Adonis. His poem records the ritual laments of Adonia in hexameter, unlike Sappho, who wrote in lyric meter. Throughout his lament, he makes frequent references to Aphrodite, who also referred to by the name Cytherea. His words show the close association between Adonis and Aphrodite.<ref>Bion, ''Lament for Adonis'', Loeb Classical Library</ref> Sappho and Bion’s works are also demonstrative of how the tradition lament expanded from oral to literary form.  

References to the Adonia is made in Aristophanes’ Lysistrata. In the play, the male characters express a distaste for the Adonia, particularly due to the loud nature of the lamentation process. In fact, there is a scene in the ''Lysistrata'', a play by Aristophanes, where the lamentations of the women celebrating the Adonia drown out those of the male characters who are attempting to hold an Assembly.<ref>Aristophanes, ''Lysistrata'', Loeb Classical Library</ref> Modern interpretations of this festival have drawn upon the disruptive characteristic of the Adonia to suggest that the festival was a form of subversion. Firstly, the Adonia was not only organized strictly by women, but also was a celebration that was not associated with the state. The exclusion of men in the entirety of the festival process is demonstrates female agency. Furthermore, during the Adonia, Athenian women were allowed to be in public and to make their voices heard in a dramatic manner. The festival allowed women the opportunity to create a type of independent community as well as to present their voices and bodies in the public sphere. Athenian women were expected to remain in the household, whereas men were the ones who engaged in politics, business, and agriculture. It is argued that women embraced this festival because Adonia permitted them to subvert gender roles in a socially acceptable way.<ref>Fredal, James. “Herm Choppers, the Adonia, and Rhetorical Action in Ancient Greece.” College English 64, no. 5 (2002): 590–612. https://doi.org/10.2307/3250755.</ref>  

'''Types of Musical Lament'''
*; Gôos
: Performed by the close female relatives of the deceased, gôos was a spontaneous expression of grief. Gôos involved wailing, tearing of the hair, outstretched arms, and beating of the breast.
*; Thrënos
: The gôos was accompanied by the thrënos, consisting of a set dirge, usually performed by hired musicians. In comparison to gôos, thrënos was more organized and musically polished. The singing often contained praise for the deceased.
*; [[Kommos (theatre)|Kommos]]
: Kommos emerged in the Classical era on the stage of Athenian tragedy. Like ritual lament, kommos is performed by female characters in conjunction with the play’s choral mourners in an expression of dramatic grief.<ref>Margaret Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, second ed. (Cambridge University Press) 2002. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_AlexiouM.Ritual_Lament_in_Greek_Tradition.2002.</ref>