Editing Manuel Castells (section)

===Early education and activism===

Castells completed his secondary education in Barcelona. He was a strong student, and in 1958, he completed his course of study two years early, at the age of sixteen. The same year, He continued his education at the [[University of Barcelona]], where he studied both Law and Economics.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Castells |first1=Manuel |last2=Ince |first2=Martin |title=Conversations with Manuel Castells |date=2003 |publisher=Polity Press |location=Cambridge |pages=8–9 |chapter=Manuel Castells: Life and Work}}</ref>

Beyond these subjects, Castells was also interested in literature and the theatre. However, the oppressive Franco government cracked down on students’ self-expression. Theatre performances were censored and student journals were shut down. This motivated Castells to join the anti-Franco movement in 1960 at age 18. He was one of very few students to engage in this kind of activism, largely because it was highly illegal and dangerous. Secrecy was imperative. Castells joined an opposition group of diverse ideologies called the [[Workers' Front of Catalonia|Workers Front of Catalonia]]. From there, he coupled his formal education with copious amounts of reading to supplement his activism. Among many other topics, Castells involved himself in the exploration of [[Marxism|Marxist]] and [[anarchist]] theory. In May 1962, Castells' activism led him to participate in a strike. Its goal was to protest the iron-fisted government and stand in solidarity with exploited miners in the Asturias region of Spain.<ref>[https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/spanish-coal-miners-challenge-franco-dictatorship-1962]</ref> This resulted in many of Castells' friends being arrested and beaten. Fortunately, Castells was able to escape to France, but without the social support he had access to in Spain. As a result, he was not able to complete his degree at the University of Barcelona. Following his escape, a fellow resistance member assisted him in achieving political refugee status, and he travelled to Paris.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Castells |first1=Manuel |last2=Ince |first2=Martin |title=Conversations with Manuel Castells |date=2003 |publisher=Polity Press |location=Cambridge |pages=8–10 |chapter=Manuel Castells: Life and Work}}</ref>

In Paris, at the age of 20, he completed his degree, and then progressed to the [[University of Paris]], where he earned a [[doctorate]] in Sociology. Castells graduated from the [[Sorbonne University|Sorbonne]] in 1964 and received his PhD from the [[University of Paris]] in 1967.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=70}}</ref>