Editing Mapuche language (section)

== History ==
{{see also|Mapuche history}}

===Prehistory===
Moulian ''et al.'' (2015) argue that the [[Puquina language]] influenced Mapuche language long before the rise of the [[Inca Empire]].<ref name=Moulianetal2015>{{cite journal |last1=Moulian |first1=Rodrígo |last2=Catrileo |first2=María |last3=Landeo |first3=Pablo |author-link2=María Catrileo |date=2015 |title=Afines quechua en el vocabulario mapuche de Luis de Valdivia |trans-title=Akins Quechua words in the Mapuche vocabulary of Luis de Valdivia |url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-48832015000200004&script=sci_arttext |journal=[[Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=73–96 |doi=10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004 |access-date=January 13, 2019 |language=es |doi-access=free |archive-date=December 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210091503/https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0718-48832015000200004&script=sci_arttext |url-status=live }}</ref> The influence of Puquine is thought to be the reason for the existence of Mapuche-Aymara-Quechua [[cognate]]s.<ref name=Moulianetal2015/> The following Pre-Incan cognates have been identified by Moulian ''et al.'': sun ({{langx|arn|antü}}, {{langx|qu|inti}}), moon ({{langx|arn|küllen}}, {{langx|qu|killa}}), warlock ({{langx|arn|kalku}}, {{langx|qu|kawchu}}), salt ({{langx|arn|chadi}}, {{langx|qu|cachi}}) and mother ({{langx|arn|ñuque}}, {{langx|qu|ñuñu}}).<ref name=Moulianetal2015/> This [[areal feature|areal]] linguistic influence may have arrived with a migratory wave arising from the collapse of the [[Tiwanaku empire|Tiwanaku Empire]] around 1000 CE.<ref name=Moulianetal2015/><ref>[[Tom Dillehay|Dillehay, Tom D.]]; [[Mario Pino Quivira|Pino Quivira, Mario]]; Bonzani, Renée; Silva, Claudia; Wallner, Johannes; Le Quesne, Carlos (2007) [http://www.dendrocronologia.cl/pubs/2007_Dillehay(AncientCultivatedWetlands).pdf Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811175820/http://www.dendrocronologia.cl/pubs/2007_Dillehay(AncientCultivatedWetlands).pdf |date=2017-08-11 }}. ''[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]]'' 81 (2007): 949–960</ref>

There is a more recent lexical influence from the [[Quechuan languages]] (''pataka'' 'hundred', ''warangka'' 'thousand'), associated with the [[Inca Empire]], and from Spanish.

As result of Inca rule, there was some Mapudungun–[[Southern Quechua|Imperial Quechua]] bilingualism among the Mapuches of [[Aconcagua River|Aconcagua Valley]] at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 1530s and 1540s.{{sfnp|Téllez|2008|p=43}}

The discovery of many [[Chono language|Chono toponyms]] in [[Chiloé Archipelago]], where [[Huilliche language|Huilliche]], a language closely related to Mapudungun, has been dominant, suggest that Mapudungun displaced Chono there prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the mid-16th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibar Bruce |first1=Jorge |date=1960 |title=Ensayo sobre los indios Chonos e interpretación de sus toponimías |journal=[[Anales de la Universidad de Chile]] |volume=117 |pages=61–70 |url=https://semanariorepublicano.uchile.cl/index.php/ANUC/article/download/19032/20162 |access-date=2019-09-06 |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806142044/https://semanariorepublicano.uchile.cl/index.php/ANUC/article/download/19032/20162 |url-status=live }}</ref> A theory postulated by chronicler [[José Pérez García]] holds that the [[Cunco people|Cuncos]] settled in [[Chiloé Island]] in [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Hispanic]] times as consequence of a push from more northern [[Huilliche people|Huilliches]], who in turn were being displaced by [[Mapuche]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alcamán |first=Eugenio |title=Los mapuche-huilliche del Futahuillimapu septentrional: Expansión colonial, guerras internas y alianzas políticas (1750–1792) |date=1997 |journal=Revista de Historia Indígena |issue=2 |pages=29–76 |language=es |url=http://200.10.23.169/trabajados/alcaman.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228093024/http://200.10.23.169/trabajados/alcaman.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-28 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to Ramírez "more than a dozen Mapuche – [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] [[cognate]]s have been described".<ref name=Ramirez2010>{{Cite journal |title=The Polynesian-Mapuche connection: Soft and Hard Evidence and New Ideas |journal=Rapa Nui Journal |last=Ramírez-Aliaga |first=José-Miguel |year=2010 |volume=24 |pages=29–33 |issue=1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267330642 |access-date=2023-06-22 |archive-date=2023-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623005954/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jose-Ramirez-Aliaga/publication/267330642_TRANSPACIFIC_CONTACTS_RNJ_2010/links/544b89ef0cf24b5d6c406c3a/TRANSPACIFIC-CONTACTS-RNJ-2010.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Among these are the Mapuche/Rapa Nui words ''toki''/''toki'' (axe), ''kuri''/''uri'' (black) and ''piti''/''iti'' (little).<ref name=Ramirez2010/>

===Spanish–Mapuche bilingualism in colonial times===
As the 16th and 17th century [[Central Chile]] was becoming a [[melting pot]] for uprooted indigenous peoples,<ref name=migracioneslocales>{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Migraciones locales y asentamiento indígena en las estancias españolas de Chile central, 1580–1650|journal=[[Historia (history of the Americas journal)|Historia]]|volume=49|issue=1|doi=10.4067/S0717-71942016000100004|doi-access=free|language=es|url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-71942016000100004&script=sci_arttext#nb29|last1=Contreras Cruces|first1=Hugo|pages=87–110|access-date=2020-01-18|archive-date=2020-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623111950/https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-71942016000100004&script=sci_arttext#nb29|url-status=live}}</ref> it has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua and Spanish coexisted there, with significant bilingualism, during the 17th century.<ref name=Hernadez>{{cite journal |last1=Hernández Salles |first1=Arturo |date=1981 |title=Influencia del mapuche en el castellano |journal=[[Documentos Lingüísticos y Literarios]] |volume=7 |pages=34–44 |language=es }}</ref> However the indigenous language that has influenced [[Chilean Spanish]] the most is Quechua rather than Mapuche.<ref name=Hernadez/>

In colonial times, many Spanish and Mestizos spoke the Mapuche language. For example, in the 17th century, many soldiers at the [[Valdivian Fort System]] had some command of Mapuche.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Urbina C. |first1=María Ximena |author-link=Ximena Urbina |date=2017 |title=La expedición de John Narborough a Chile, 1670: Defensa de Valdivia, rumeros de indios, informaciones de los prisioneros y la creencia en la Ciudad de los Césares |language=es |trans-title=John Narborough expedition to Chile, 1670: Defense of Valdivia, indian rumours, information on prisoners, and the belief in the City of the Césares |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=11–36 |doi=10.4067/S0718-22442017000200011 |url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-22442017000200011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es |access-date=27 December 2019 |doi-access=free |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516145116/https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-22442017000200011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the 17th and 18th centuries, most of [[Chiloé Archipelago]]'s population was [[bilingual]], and according to [[John Byron]], many Spaniards preferred to use the local [[Huilliche language]] because they considered it "more beautiful".<ref>Byron, John. El naufragio de la fragata "Wager". 1955. Santiago: Zig-zag.</ref> Around the same time, [[Governorate of Chiloé|Governor]] [[Antonio Narciso de Santa María|Narciso de Santa María]] complained that Spanish settlers in the islands could not speak Spanish properly, but could speak Veliche, and that this second language was more used.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cárdenas A. |first1=Renato |last2=Montiel Vera |first2=Dante |last3=Grace Hall |first3=Catherine |date=1991 |title=Los chono y los veliche de Chiloé |url=http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0012567.pdf |location=Santiago de Chile |publisher=Olimpho |page=277 |author-link1=Renato Cárdenas |language=es |access-date=2020-01-18 |archive-date=2020-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128203435/http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0012567.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Further decline===
Mapudungun was once the main language spoken in central Chile. The sociolinguistic situation of the Mapuche has changed rapidly. Now, nearly all of Mapuche people are bilingual or monolingual in Spanish. The degree of bilingualism depends on the community, participation in Chilean society, and the individual's choice towards the traditional or modern/urban way of life.<ref name="Smeets, Ineke 2008">{{Cite book|last=Smeets |first=Ineke |year=2008 |title=A Grammar of Mapuche |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019558-3}}</ref>