Editing Meat alternative (section)

== Production and composition ==
[[File:Tender employee demonstrating texture of plant-based pulled pork (04528).jpg|thumb|A plant-based [[pulled pork]] vendor demonstrating its texture]]
To produce meat alternatives with a meat-like texture, two approaches can be followed: bottom-up and top-down.<ref name="Structuring processes for meat analogues">{{cite journal |last1=Dekkers |first1=Brigit |title=Structuring processes for meat analogues |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=November 2018 |volume=81 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.011 |doi-access=free}}</ref> With bottom-up structuring, individual fibers are made separately and then assembled into larger products. An example of a meat alternative made using a bottom-up strategy is [[cultured meat]]. The top-down approach, on the other hand, induces a fibrous structure by deforming the material, resulting in fibrousness on a larger length scale. An example of a top-down technique is [[food extrusion]].

Both bottom-up and top-down processing can be used alone or in combination to offer various benefits. As discussed later, different meat alternative products have varying nutritional values.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Vliet |first1=Stephan |last2=Bain |first2=James R. |last3=Muehlbauer |first3=Michael J. |last4=Provenza |first4=Frederick D. |last5=Kronberg |first5=Scott L. |last6=Pieper |first6=Carl F. |last7=Huffman |first7=Kim M. |date=2021-07-05 |title=A metabolomics comparison of plant-based meat and grass-fed meat indicates large nutritional differences despite comparable Nutrition Facts panels |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=13828 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-93100-3 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8257669 |pmid=34226581|bibcode=2021NatSR..1113828V }}</ref>  A notable advantage of the bottom-up approach is its ability to provide precise control over the composition and characteristics of the end product, allowing for optimized [[nutrition]]al profiles. On the other hand, meat alternatives produced by top-down approaches may have limited malleability but are more scalable and can utilize available [[Agriculture|agricultural resources]] and infrastructure effectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nichol |first1=Jason W. |last2=Khademhosseini |first2=Ali |date=2009 |title=Modular tissue engineering: engineering biological tissues from the bottom up |journal=Soft Matter |language=en |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=1312–1319 |doi=10.1039/b814285h |issn=1744-683X |pmc=2826124 |pmid=20179781|bibcode=2009SMat....5.1312N }}</ref> According to a study by Wageningen University & Research titled "''Structuring Processes for Meat Analogues,''" Techniques that follow the bottom-up strategy have the potential to resemble the structure of meat most closely.".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dekkers |first1=Birgit L. |last2=Boom |first2=Remko M. |last3=van der Goot |first3=Atze Jan |date=November 2018 |title=Structuring processes for meat analogues |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=81 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.011|doi-access=free }}</ref> A cross-national survey conducted among meat-eaters with varying degrees of meat alternative consumption showed that those who consumed higher quantities of meat were more willing to switch to meat alternatives if they resembled authentic meat more accurately. Which can be accomplished through bottom-up approaches. The study concludes that sensory experience plays a crucial role in utilizing plant-based alternatives for heavy meat eaters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoek |first1=Annet C. |last2=Luning |first2=Pieternel A. |last3=Weijzen |first3=Pascalle |last4=Engels |first4=Wim |last5=Kok |first5=Frans J. |last6=de Graaf |first6=Cees |date=June 2011 |title=Replacement of meat by meat substitutes. A survey on person- and product-related factors in consumer acceptance |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195666311000523 |journal=Appetite |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=662–673 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2011.02.001|pmid=21315123 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The types of ingredients that can be used to create meat substitutes is expanding, from companies like Plentify, which are using high-protein bacteria found in the human microbiome,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Watson|first=Elaine|date=20 June 2020|title='Plentify' novel single cell protein 'ludicrously efficient' to produce vs animal protein, claims startup|url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2020/06/20/Plentify-novel-single-cell-protein-ludicrously-efficient-to-produce-vs-animal-protein-claims-startup|access-date=2020-06-26|language=en-GB}}</ref> to companies like Meati Foods, that are cultivating the mycelium of fungi—in this case, [[Neurospora crassa]]—to form steaks, chicken breasts, or fish.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Peters|first=Adele|date=29 October 2019|title=If it looks like a steak and tastes like a steak, in this case, it's a mushroom|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90421889/if-it-looks-like-a-steak-and-tastes-like-a-steak-in-this-case-its-a-mushroom|access-date=2020-06-26|work=Fast Company|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the most technical and scientific way to understand what Meati is made from and how we are branding it?|url=https://meati.com/mushroom-root?card=what-is-the-most|access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>

[[Soy protein#Isolates|Soy protein isolates]] or soybean flour and gluten are usually used as foundation for most meat substitutes that are available on the market. Soy protein isolate is a highly pure form of soy protein with a minimum protein content of 90%. The process of extracting the protein from the soybeans starts with the dehulling, or decortication, of the seeds. The seeds are then treated with solvents such as [[hexane]] to extract the oil from them. The oil-free soybean meal is then suspended in water and treated with alkali to dissolve the protein while leaving behind the carbohydrates. The alkaline solution is then treated with acidic substances to precipitate the protein, before being washed and dried. The removal of fats and carbohydrates results in a product that has a relatively neutral flavor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodandnutrition.org/July-August-2013/Meat-Analogs/|title=Meat Analogs|last=Sedgwick|first=Tali|date=28 June 2013|website=Food and Nutrition|publisher=Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics|access-date=10 December 2016}}</ref> Soy protein is also considered a "complete protein" as it contains all of the essential amino acids that are crucial for proper human growth and development.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2682466 |title=US patent US2682466A High protein food product and process for its preparation, published 29 June 1954 |author=Robert A. Boyer |via=patents.google.com}}, {{Cite web |url=https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5285709 |title=US patent 5285709, "Meat Analog Compositions.", issued 29 June 1954 |author=Robert A. Boyer |via=worldwide.espacenet.com}}</ref>

After the textured base material is obtained, a number of [[flavoring]]s can be used to give a meaty flavor to the product. The recipe for a basic vegan chicken flavor is known since 1972, exploiting the [[Maillard reaction]] to produce aromas from simple chemicals.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perret |first1=Marcel Andre |title=Chicken flavor and process for preparing the same |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3689289A/en |date=5 September 1972}}</ref> Later understanding of the source of aroma in cooked meat also found [[lipid oxidation]] and [[thiamine]] breakdown to be important processes. By using more complex starting materials such as [[yeast extract]] (considered a natural flavoring in the EU), [[hydrolyzed vegetable protein]], various [[Fermentation|fermented]] foods, and spices, these reactions are also replicated during cooking to produce richer and more convincing meat flavors.<ref name=vegmeat>{{cite journal |last1=Kale |first1=Prajyoti |last2=Mishra |first2=Anusha |last3=Annapure |first3=Uday S. |title=Development of vegan meat flavour: A review on sources and techniques |journal=Future Foods |date=June 2022 |volume=5 |pages=100149 |doi=10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100149|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xuejie |last2=Li |first2=Jian |title=The Flavor of Plant-Based Meat Analogues |journal=Cereal Foods World |date=2020 |volume=65 |issue=4 |doi=10.1094/CFW-65-4-0040}}</ref>