Editing Michael II (section)

===Revolt of Thomas the Slav: 821–823===
Michael's accession prompted his former comrade-in-arms [[Thomas the Slav]] to set himself up as rival emperor in [[Anatolia]] to avenge Leo V. He had been made the ''[[tourmarches|tourmarchēs]]'' of the ''[[Foederati]]'' (a command in the [[Anatolic Theme]]) by Leo, and so bore at least nominal allegiance to him. The ''[[strategos|stratēgos]]'' of [[Sicily]], Gregory, also proclaimed allegiance to Leo against Michael but was killed by soldiers under the ''tourmarchēs'' [[Euphemius (Sicily)|Euphemios]] which secured the loyalty of the Sicilian fleet to Michael. Thomas was supported by the [[Bucellarian Theme|Bucellarian]], [[Paphlagonia (theme)|Paphlagonian]] and [[Cibyrrhaeot Theme|Cibyrrhaeot]] [[theme (Byzantine district)|themes]], while Michael held the European part of the Empire including the [[Opsikion]] (commanded by his relative Katakylas), [[Thracesian Theme|Thracesian]], [[Armeniac Theme|Armeniac]] and [[Chaldia]]n themes. To strengthen his position, he won the support of iconodules by stopping persecution, recalling exiled bishops and offering to reinstate Patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople]] if he ignored the [[Byzantine iconoclasm|iconoclast controversy]], which he refused to do.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=434}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=386–387}}

In his quest for support, Thomas presented himself as a champion of the poor, reduced taxation, and concluded an alliance with [[al-Ma'mun]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], having himself crowned as emperor by the iconodule Greek [[List of Greek Orthodox patriarchs of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]], [[Job of Antioch|Job]], in the [[Church of Cassian]], then in Abbasid territory, taking the imperial name ''Constantine''. Having amassed a large army, perhaps of 80,000 men as some sources report, Thomas marched into [[Thrace]], winning the support of the theme as well as the Armeniacs and Chaldians. He besieged the capital in December 821. Although Thomas did not win over all the Anatolian themes, he secured the support of the naval theme and their ships, allowing him to intensify his siege of [[Constantinople]]. At this point, Michael's usurpation was prevented only by the [[Walls of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Giorgi|Eger|2021|p=243}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=434–435}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=387}}
[[File:ThomasTheRebelAndMourtagon.jpg|thumb|Thomas the Slav is defeated by the army of [[Omurtag of Bulgaria]].]]

In summer 822, the imperial fleet was able to destroy the rebel fleet with [[Greek fire]]. The primary sources disagree over whether a large Bulgar force under Khan [[Omurtag of Bulgaria]] was acting on Michael's request or of its own accord, nevertheless in spring 823 it marched against Thomas, forcing fhim to lift his siege of Constantinople. The Bulgars defeated Thomas and many of his men began to desert, leading him to retreat to [[Arcadiopolis]]. Michael besieged Thomas in Arcadiopolis and starved him out, leading his supporters to hand him over to the Emperor, who put him to death. The last outbreak of resistance was put down in Anatolia in spring 824. By the end of 823, Michael's power was firmly established and he had negotiated peace with the Bulgars despite their raiding and pillaging in Thrace during Thomas' revolt.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=435}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=387–388}}
[[File:MadridSkylitzesFol37rDetail.jpg|thumb|Michael II successfully captures [[Lüleburgaz|Arcadiopolis]], leading to the surrender of Thomas the Slav.]]

====Aftermath====
The warfare damaged the rural economy, in particular the region around Constantinople, and many [[Dalmatia]]n coastal towns cast off imperial authority, which was not reinstated until the reign of [[Basil I]] ({{reign|867|886}}). Michael tried to reunite the Empire by pardoning many of Thomas' supporters and marrying the daughter of [[Constantine VI]] and [[Maria of Amnia]], [[Euphrosyne (9th century)|Euphrosyne]], of the illustrious iconoclast [[Isaurian dynasty]], although she herself was an iconodule. The marriage thus gave Michael's rule a degree of legitimacy, but it caused some outrage since his first wife, [[Thekla (wife of Michael II)|Thekla]] had only recently died, and Euphrosyne was a [[nun]]. Nevertheless, the marriage helped to stabilise his authority and position.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=435–436}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=388–392}}

Michael attempted a reconciliation of the [[Byzantine iconoclasm|iconoclast controversy]] with Theodore and Nikephoros but they remained determined in their rejection of any compromise between iconoclasm and iconodulia. Theodore insisted that the matter should be resolved by a council presided over by Nikephoros or by the pope as a final arbiter. Nikephoros wrote his ''Refutation'' of the ''Acts'' of the 815 Council of Constantinople. Michael denied that the pope had any authority to intervene in the Eastern Church, so when the abbot [[Methodios I of Constantinople|Methodios]], later Patriarch of Constantinople, arrived in Constantinople with a definition of orthodoxy from [[Pope Paschal I]], he was considered a traitor and imprisoned. This was the only case of oppression of iconodules by Michael recorded in primary sources, and he generally pursued a benevolent policy, hoping he would be able to convert iconodules through dialogue. He wrote to the [[Carolingian Emperor]], [[Louis the Pious]] ({{reign|814|840}}), defending the iconoclast position as represented in the synod of 815, and affirming belief in the veneration of [[relics]]. He gave an account of Thomas the Slav's revolt and appealed to Louis to suppress eastern monks who were spreading anti-Byzantine propaganda in [[Rome]]. He also expressed his disapproval of certain practices associated with iconodules including the mixing of fragments of icons with the [[Eucharist]], the use of icons as [[altar]] tables and as sponsors in [[baptism]] or [[tonsure|tonsuring]]. This is corroborated by other reports of the extensive cult of images which had developed by the ninth century.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=390–391}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=282}} Another case of Byzantine diplomacy with the Franks was the gift of the manuscript of [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] to Louis' court in 827, which was purposefully chosen because Louis' adviser [[Hilduin of Saint-Denis|Hilduin]], abbot of Saint-Denis, chose Pseudo-Dionysius as his abbey's [[patron saint]].{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=424}}