Editing Middle Ages (section)

== Early Middle Ages ==
{{Main|Early Middle Ages}}

=== New societies ===
{{Main|Migration Period|fall of the Western Roman Empire}}

[[File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Barbarian kingdoms]] and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire]]

The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration.<ref name=Brown122>Brown, ''World of Late Antiquity'', pp. 122–124</ref> The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as [[Stilicho]] (d. 408), [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] (d. 454), [[Aspar]] (d. 471), [[Ricimer]] (d. 472), or [[Gundobad]] (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common.<ref name=Wickham95>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 95–98</ref> This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state.<ref name=Wickham100>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 100–101</ref> Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.<ref name=Collins100>Collins, ''Early Medieval Europe'', p. 100</ref> Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions.<ref name=Collins96>Collins, ''Early Medieval Europe'', pp. 96–97</ref> An important difference was the new polities' gradual loss of tax revenue. Many new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes; instead, they relied on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues, so the [[Roman Empire#Taxation|taxation systems]] decayed.<ref name=Wickham102>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 102–103</ref> Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.<ref name=Backman86>Backman, ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'', pp. 86–91</ref>{{efn-ua|The English word "slave" derives from the Latin term for Slavs, ''slavicus''.<ref name=Dict261>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms'' p. 261</ref>}}

[[File:Theoderic Quarter Siliqua 80000847.jpg|thumb|left|A coin of the [[Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] leader [[Theoderic the Great]], struck in Milan, Italy, {{circa|AD 491–501}}]]

Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by the centralised Roman government.<ref name=Collins96 /> The [[Ostrogoths]], a Gothic tribe, settled in [[Roman Italy]] in the late fifth century under [[Theoderic the Great]] (d. 526) and set up a [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|kingdom]] marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign.<ref name=James82>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 82–88</ref> The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436, formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's [[Geneva]] and [[Lyon]], it grew to become the realm of [[Kingdom of Burgundy#First Kingdom of Burgundy (4th century – 534 AD)|Burgundy]] in the late 5th and early 6th centuries.<ref name=James77>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 77–78</ref> Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and [[Celtic Britons]] set up small polities. [[Francia]] was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is [[Childeric I]] (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its [[grave goods]], which included weapons and a large quantity of gold.<ref name=James79>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 79–80</ref>

Under Childeric's son [[Clovis I]] (r. 509–511), the founder of the [[Merovingian dynasty]], the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to the natives of [[Britannia]]&nbsp;– modern-day Great Britain&nbsp;– settled in what is now [[Brittany]].<ref name=James78>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 78–81</ref>{{efn-ua|Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.<ref name=James78 />}} Other monarchies were established by the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], the [[Suebi]] in northwestern Iberia, and the [[Vandal Kingdom]] in [[North Africa]].<ref name=James77 /> In the sixth century, the [[Lombards]] settled in [[Northern Italy]], replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of [[duchies]] that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the [[Kingdom of the Lombards]].<ref name=Collins196>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 196–208</ref>

The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul, for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. [[Slavs]] settled in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] and the Balkan Peninsula. Changes in languages accompanied the settlement of peoples. [[Latin]], the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by [[vernacular languages]], which evolved from Latin but were distinct from it, collectively known as [[Romance languages]]. These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs added [[Slavic languages]] to Eastern Europe.<ref name=Davies235>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 235–238</ref>

=== Byzantine survival ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}

[[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|A [[mosaic]] showing [[Justinian]] with [[Maximianus of Ravenna|the bishop]] of [[Ravenna]] (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers.<ref name=Adams158>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 158–159</ref>|thumb|right]]

As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the [[Sasanian Empire]], Rome's traditional enemy, lasted most of the 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of [[Roman law]]; the first effort—the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]''—was completed in 438.<ref name=Wickham81>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 81–83</ref> Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''.<ref name=Bauer200>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 200–202</ref> Justinian also oversaw the construction of the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths,<ref name=Bauer206 /> under [[Belisarius]] (d. 565).<ref name=Collins126>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 126, 130</ref> The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of [[Plague of Justinian|plague in 542]] led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests.<ref name=Bauer206>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 206–213</ref>

At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of [[Exarchate of Ravenna|most of Italy]], North Africa, and a small foothold in southern Spain. Historians have criticised Justinian's reconquests for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the [[early Muslim conquests]], but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult.<ref name=Brown8>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 8–9</ref>

In the Eastern Empire, the Slavs' slow infiltration of the Balkans added further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s, Slavic tribes were in [[Thrace]] and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyrium]] and had defeated an imperial army near [[Edirne|Adrianople]] in 551. In the 560s, the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] began to expand from their base on the north bank of the [[Danube]]; by the end of the 6th century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796.<ref name=James95>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 95–99</ref>

An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a [[Khosrow II#Accession to the throne|succession dispute]]. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|the Persians invaded]] and during the reign of Emperor [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and [[Anatolia]] until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628, the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered its lost territories.<ref name=Collins140>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 140–143</ref>

=== Western society ===
{{See also|Early medieval European dress|medieval cuisine}}

In Western Europe, some older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to [[Latin literature|Latin scholarship]] and [[Education in Ancient Rome|education]] mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, [[Jerome]] (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading [[Cicero]] than the [[Bible]]. By the 6th century, [[Gregory of Tours]] (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning [[shorthand]].<ref name=Brown174>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 174–175</ref> By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book.<ref name=Brown181>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' p. 181</ref> Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some [[Early medieval literature|original works]] were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] (d. 489), [[Cassiodorus]] (d. {{circa|585}}), and [[Boethius]] (d. c. 525) were typical of the age.<ref name=Brown45>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 45–49</ref>

Changes also occurred among laypeople, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported the entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces.{{efn-ua|Such entourages are named ''[[Comitatus (classical meaning)|comitatus]]'' by historians, although it is not a contemporary term. It was adapted in the 19th century from a word used by the 2nd-century historian [[Tacitus]] to describe the close companions of a lord or king.<ref name=Dict80>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms'' p. 80</ref> The ''comitatus'' comprised young men who were supposed to be utterly devoted to their lord. If their sworn lord died, they were also expected to fight to the death.<ref name=Geary56>Geary ''Before France and Germany'' pp. 56–57</ref>}} Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society, including those related by Gregory of Tours in [[Merovingian]] Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some [[weregild|compensation]].<ref name=Wickham189>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 189–193</ref> Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In [[Anglo-Saxon]] society, the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by [[abbess]]es of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.<ref name=Wickham195>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 195–199</ref>

[[File:Frühmittelalterliches Dorf.jpg|Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in Bavaria, Germany|thumb|left]]

Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from [[archaeology]]; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either [[Code (law)|law codes]] or writers from the upper classes.<ref name=Wickham204>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 204</ref> [[Landholding]] patterns in the West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas, large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having great autonomy.<ref name=Wickham205>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 205–210</ref> Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of a few families and lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more systems.<ref name=Wickham211>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 211–212</ref> Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and a free peasant's family could rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord.<ref name=Wickham215>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 215</ref>

Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. For instance, Rome shrank from hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. [[Roman temple]]s were converted into [[Christianised sites|Christian churches]] and city walls remained in use.<ref name=Brown24-26>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 24–26</ref> In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals.<ref name=City3>Gies and Gies ''Life in a Medieval City'' pp. 3–4</ref> Although there had been [[Jews in the Roman Empire|Jewish communities in many Roman cities]], the [[Jews]] suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially, they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and were sometimes encouraged to settle in new areas.<ref name=Jews191>Loyn "Jews" ''Middle Ages'' p. 191</ref>

=== Rise of Islam ===
{{Main|Spread of Islam|Early Muslim conquests}}

[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|The [[early Muslim conquests]]
{{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632}}
{{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661}}
{{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]

Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. [[Judaism]] was an active proselytising faith, and at least one [[Arab]] political leader converted to it.{{efn-ua|[[Dhu Nuwas]], ruler of what is today [[Yemen]], converted in 525, and his subsequent persecution of Christians led to the invasion and conquest of his kingdom by the [[Axumite]]s of [[Ethiopia]].<ref name=Collins138>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 138–139</ref>}} In addition Jewish theologians wrote polemics defending their religion against Christian and Islamic influences.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199730049.001.0001 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973004-9 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Adele |editor-last2=Grossman |editor-first2=Maxine}}</ref>

Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' [[Zoroastrianism]] in seeking converts, especially among residents of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. All these strands came together with the emergence of [[Islam]] in Arabia during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (d. 632).<ref name=Collins143>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 143–145</ref> After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Syria]] in 634–635, continuing with [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] between 637 and 642, reaching [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] in 640–641, [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]] in the later seventh century, and the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Iberian Peninsula]] in 711.<ref name=Collins149>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 149–151</ref> By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Reilly52>Reilly ''Medieval Spains'' pp. 52–53</ref>

The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the [[Battle of Tours]] in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and its replacement by the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. The Abbasids moved their capital to [[Baghdad]] and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the [[Aghlabids]] controlled North Africa, and the [[Tulunids]] became rulers of Egypt.<ref name=Brown15>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 15</ref> By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old [[Roman economy]]. Franks traded timber, furs, swords, and enslaved people in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from the Arabs.<ref name=Cunliffe427>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 427–428</ref>

=== Trade and economy ===
{{Main|Medieval economic history}}
The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and, by the 7th century, found only in a few cities such as Rome or [[Naples]]. By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], African products were no longer found in Western Europe. Replacing goods from long-range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In northern Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around the Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally.<ref name=Wickham218>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp.&nbsp;218–219</ref>

The various Germanic states in the west all had [[coin]]ages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693–694, when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin was the [[denarius]] or [[French denier|denier]], while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a [[penny]]. From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold, except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted.<ref name=Coin>Grierson "Coinage and currency" ''Middle Ages''</ref>

=== Church and monasticism ===
{{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|An 11th-century illustration of [[Gregory the Great]] dictating to a secretary]]

Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and [[liturgy]] from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century, issues such as [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], [[clerical marriage]], and [[Caesaropapism|state control of the Church]] had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were more significant than the similarities.<ref name=Collins218>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 218–233</ref> A formal break known as the [[East–West Schism]] came in 1054, when the [[papacy]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|patriarchy of Constantinople]] clashed over [[papal supremacy]] and [[excommunicated]] each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the Eastern branch the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Davies328>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 328–332</ref>

The [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|ecclesiastical structure]] of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the West mostly intact. Still, the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western [[bishop]]s looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. [[Byzantine Papacy|Many of the popes]] before 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope [[Gregory the Great]] (pope 590–604) survived. Of those 850 letters, most were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the [[Gregorian mission]] in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.<ref name=WIckham170>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 170–172</ref> [[Irish missionaries]] were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such [[monk]]s as [[Columba]] (d. 597) and [[Columbanus]] (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.<ref name=Colish62>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 62–63</ref>

The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]] in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the [[Desert Fathers]] of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on the community experience of the spiritual life, called [[cenobitism]], which was pioneered by [[Pachomius]] (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through [[Hagiography|hagiographical literature]] such as the ''[[Life of Anthony]]''.<ref name=Lawrence10>Lawrence ''Medieval Monasticism'' pp. 10–13</ref> [[Benedict of Nursia]] (d. 547) wrote the [[Benedictine Rule]] for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an [[abbot]].<ref name=Lawrence18>Lawrence ''Medieval Monasticism'' pp. 18–24</ref> Monks and monasteries had a profound effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as [[land trust]]s for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation.<ref name=Wickham185>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 185–187</ref> They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin [[Classics#Classical Rome|classics]] were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages.<ref name=Hamilton43>Hamilton ''Religion in the Medieval West'' pp. 43–44</ref> Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as [[Bede]] (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries.<ref name=Colish64>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 64–65</ref>

=== Carolingian Europe ===
{{Main|Francia|Carolingian Empire}}

[[File:Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg|thumb|upright= 1.5|Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814|left]]

The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called [[Austrasia]], [[Neustria]], and [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] during the 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria.<ref name=Bauer246>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 246–253</ref> Such warfare was exploited by [[Pippin of Landen|Pippin I]] (d. 640), the [[Mayor of the Palace]] for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later, his family inherited the office and acted as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, [[Charles Martel]] (d. 741), won the [[Battle of Poitiers (732)|Battle of Poitiers]] in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees.<ref name=Bauer347>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 347–349</ref>{{efn-ua|Muslim armies had earlier [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquered the Visigothic kingdom]] of Spain, after defeating the last Visigothic King [[Ruderic]] (d. 711 or 712) at the [[Battle of Guadalete]] in 711, finishing the conquest by 719.<ref name=Bauer344>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' p. 344</ref>}} Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of [[Northumbria]], [[Mercia]], [[Wessex]], and [[East Anglia]] which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and [[Picts]].<ref name=Wickham158>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 158–159</ref> Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under the control of kings. There were perhaps as many as [[List of Irish kingdoms|150 local kings]] in Ireland of varying importance.<ref name=Wickham164>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 164–165</ref>

The [[Carolingian dynasty]], as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by {{nowrap|[[Pippin III]]}} (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought and gained authority for this coup from Pope {{nowrap|[[Pope Stephen II|Stephen II]]}} (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and [[Carloman I|Carloman]] (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or [[Charlemagne]], embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and [[Saxon Wars|Saxony]]. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land.<ref name=Bauer371>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 371–378</ref> In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the [[Papal States]].<ref name=Brown20>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 20</ref>{{efn-ua|The Papal States endured until 1870, when the [[Kingdom of Italy]] seized most of them.<ref name=Davies824>Davies ''Europe'' p. 824</ref>}}

[[File:Aachener Dom Pfalzkapelle vom Münsterplatz 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Charlemagne's palace chapel]] at [[Aachen]], completed in 805<ref name=Stalley73>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' p. 73</ref>]]

The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors.<ref name=Backman109>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 109</ref> It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state.<ref name=Backman117>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 117–120</ref> There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants who settled on small farms. Little trade existed, and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean.<ref name=Backman109 /> The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called [[count]]s, who administered the [[counties]] the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials, called ''[[missi dominici]]'', who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.<ref name=Davies302>Davies ''Europe'' p. 302</ref>

=== Carolingian Renaissance ===
{{Main|Carolingian Renaissance}}

[[File:Kloster Lorsch 07.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Lorsch Abbey]] gatehouse, {{circa|800|lk=no}}, an example of [[Carolingian architecture]]—a first, albeit isolated [[classical architecture]] movement]]

Charlemagne's court in [[Aachen]] was the centre of the cultural revival, sometimes referred to as the "[[Carolingian Renaissance]]". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk [[Alcuin]] (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the [[Northumbria's Golden Age|education]] available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]]—or writing office—made use of a new [[Writing system|script]] today known as [[Carolingian minuscule]],{{efn-ua|The [[Carolingian minuscule]] was developed from the [[uncial script]] of Late Antiquity, which was a smaller, rounder form of writing the [[Latin alphabet]] than the classical forms.<ref name=Davies241>Davies ''Europe'' p. 241</ref>}} allowing a standard writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in [[Christian liturgy|church liturgy]], imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the [[Gregorian chant]] in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was copying, correcting, and disseminating basic works on religious and secular topics to encourage learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced.<ref name=Colish66>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 66–70</ref> Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the [[Classical Latin]] of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called [[Medieval Latin]].<ref name=Lang>Loyn "Language and dialect" ''Middle Ages'' p. 204</ref>

=== Breakup of the Carolingian Empire ===
{{Main|Holy Roman Empire|Viking Age}}
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Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs but was unable to do so as only one son, [[Louis the Pious]] (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Numerous divisions of the empire marked Louis's reign of 26 years among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son {{nowrap|[[Lothair I]]}} (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy.{{efn-ua|Italy at the time did not include the entire peninsula but only part of the north.<ref name=Davies285>Davies ''Europe'' p. 285</ref>}} Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and [[Charles the Bald]] (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took [[East Francia]], comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles [[West Francia]] with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. [[Louis the German]] (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the [[wikt:suzerainty|suzerainty]] of his elder brother. The division was disputed. [[Pepin II of Aquitaine|{{nowrap|Pepin II}} of Aquitaine]] (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for [[Aquitaine]], while Louis the German tried to annexe all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.<ref name=Bauer427>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 427–431</ref>

A three-year civil war followed his death. By the [[Treaty of Verdun]] (843), a kingdom between the [[Rhine]] and [[Rhone]] rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German controlled Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.<ref name=Bauer427 /> Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.<ref name=Backman139>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 139</ref>{{efn-ua|There was a brief re-uniting of the Empire by [[Charles the Fat|Charles III]], known as "the Fat", in 884. However, the actual units of the empire did not merge, and they retained their separate administrations. Charles was deposed in 887 and died in January 888.<ref name=Collins356>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp.&nbsp;356–358</ref>}} In 987, the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of [[Hugh Capet]] (r. 987–996) as king.{{efn-ua|The Carolingian dynasty had earlier been displaced by King [[Odo of France|Odo]] (r. 888–898), previously [[Count of Paris]], who took the throne in 888.<ref name=Collins358>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 358–359</ref> Although members of the Carolingian dynasty became kings in the western lands after Odo's death, Odo's family also supplied kings—his brother [[Robert I of France|Robert I]] became king for 922–923, and then Robert's son-in-law [[Rudolph of France|Raoul]] was king from 929 to 936—before the Carolingians reclaimed the throne once more.<ref name=Collins360 />}}{{efn-ua|Hugh Capet was a grandson of Robert I, an earlier king.<ref name=Collins360 />}} In the eastern lands, the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with the death of [[Louis the Child]],<ref name=Collins360>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 360–361</ref> and the selection of the unrelated [[Conrad I of Germany|Conrad I]] (r. 911–918) as king.<ref name=Collins397>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 397</ref>

Invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes accompanied the break-up of the Carolingian Empire. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the [[Vikings]], who also raided the British Isles and settled there and in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain [[Rollo]] (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King [[Charles the Simple]] (r. 898–922) to settle in what became [[Normandy]].<ref name=Backman141>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 141–144</ref>{{efn-ua|This settlement eventually expanded and sent out conquering expeditions to England, Sicily, and southern Italy.<ref name=Davies336>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 336–339</ref>}} The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual [[Hungarian people|Magyar]] assault until the invader's defeat at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955.<ref name=Backman144>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 144–145</ref> The break-up of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.<ref name=Bauer147>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 147–149</ref>

=== New kingdoms and Byzantine revival ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|First Bulgarian Empire|Christianisation of Bulgaria|Kingdom of Germany|Christianisation of Scandinavia|Christianisation of Kievan Rus'}}
{{See also|Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)|Byzantine–Bulgarian wars}}
[[File:Europe in 900 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Europe in 900]]

Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In [[Anglo-Saxon England]], King [[Alfred the Great]] (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in [[Danelaw|Danish settlements]] in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia.<ref name=Collins378>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 378–385</ref> By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain.<ref name=Collins387>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 387</ref> In northern Britain, [[Kenneth MacAlpin]] (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the [[Scottish people|Scots]] into the [[Kingdom of Alba]].<ref name=Davies309>Davies ''Europe'' p. 309</ref> In the early 10th century, the [[Ottonian dynasty]] had established itself in [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]], and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}} (r. 936–973) as [[Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref name=Collins394>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 394–404</ref> In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son [[Otto II]] (r. 967–983) to [[Theophanu]] (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor [[Romanos II]] (r. 959–963).<ref name=Davies317>Davies ''Europe'' p. 317</ref> By the late 10th century [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Italy]] had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability;<ref name=Wickham435>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 435–439</ref> [[Otto III]] (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom.<ref name=Whitton152>Whitton "Society of Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 152</ref> The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.<ref name=Wickham439>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 439–444</ref>

[[File:Christ Magdeburg Cathedral Met 41.100.157.jpg|10th-century [[Ottonian art|Ottonian]] ivory plaque depicting Christ receiving a church from {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}}|thumb|left|upright=0.7]]

[[Christianization of Scandinavia|Missionary efforts to Scandinavia]] during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as [[History of Sweden (800–1521)|Sweden]], [[History of Denmark|Denmark]], and [[History of Norway|Norway]], which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became [[Kyivan Rus'|Russia]] and [[Settlement of Iceland|Iceland]]. Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe and even attempted to seize Constantinople in [[Rus'–Byzantine War (860)|860]] and [[Rus'–Byzantine War (907)|907]].<ref name=Collins385>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 385–389</ref> Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]].<ref name=Wickham500>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 500–505</ref>

In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor [[Basil I]] (r. 867–886) and his successors [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] (r. 886–912) and [[Constantine VII]] (r. 913–959), members of the [[Macedonian dynasty]]. Commerce revived, and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors [[John I Tzimiskes|John I]] (r. 969–976) and [[Basil II]] (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the [[Macedonian Renaissance]]. Writers such as [[John Geometres]] ([[fl.]] early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works.<ref name=Davies318>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 318–320</ref> Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the [[Moravians]], [[Bulgars]], [[Bohemian (demonym)|Bohemians]], [[Poles (people)|Poles]], Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the [[Kievan Rus']]. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of [[Great Moravia|Moravia]], [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], [[Bohemia]], [[Poland in the Early Middle Ages|Poland]], Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'.<ref name=Davies321>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 321–326</ref> Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea.<ref name=Crampton12>Crampton ''Concise History of Bulgaria'' p. 12</ref> By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.<ref name=Curta246>Curta ''Southeastern Europe'' pp.&nbsp;246–247</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Medieval art|Medieval architecture}}
{{See also|Migration Period art|Pre-Romanesque art and architecture|Carolingian art}}

[[File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A page from the [[Book of Kells]], an [[illuminated manuscript]] created in the British Isles in the late 8th or early 9th century<ref name=Nees145>Nees ''Early Medieval Art'' p. 145</ref>]]

Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian [[basilica]]s of the 4th and 8th centuries, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture.<ref name=Stalley29>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 29–35</ref> One feature of the basilica is the use of a [[transept]],<ref name=Stalley43>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 43–44</ref> or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long [[nave]].<ref name=Cosman247>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 247</ref> Other new features of religious architecture include the [[crossing tower]] and a monumental [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches#Façade|entrance to the church]], usually at the west end of the building.<ref name=Stalley49>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 45, 49</ref>

[[Carolingian art]] was produced for a small group of figures around the court and the monasteries and churches they supported. It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and [[Byzantine art]] but was also influenced by the [[Insular art]] of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of [[Celtic art|Irish Celtic]] and [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon Germanic]] styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly [[illuminated manuscript]]s and carved [[Ivory carving#Antiquity and the Early Medieval period|ivories]], originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down.<ref name=Kitzinger36>Kitzinger ''Early Medieval Art'' pp. 36–53, 61–64</ref><ref name=Henderson18>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 18–21, 63–71</ref> Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the [[Cross of Lothair]], several [[reliquaries]], and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at [[Sutton Hoo]] and the [[hoard]]s of [[Treasure of Gourdon|Gourdon]] from Merovingian France, [[Guarrazar]] from Visigothic Spain and [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós|Nagyszentmiklós]] near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from the large [[brooch]]es in [[Fibula (brooch)|fibula]] or [[Celtic brooch|penannular]] form that were key pieces of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish [[Tara Brooch]].<ref name=Henderson36>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 36–42, 49–55, 103, 143, 204–208</ref> Highly decorated books were mostly [[Gospel Book]]s and these have survived in [[List of illuminated manuscripts|larger numbers]], including the Insular [[Book of Kells]], the [[Book of Lindisfarne]], and the imperial [[Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram]], which is one of the few to retain its "[[treasure binding]]" of gold encrusted with jewels.<ref name=Benton41>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 41–49</ref> Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative [[monumental sculpture]] in [[Christian art]],<ref name=Lasko16>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 16–18</ref> and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the [[Gero Cross]] were common in important churches.<ref name=Henderson233>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 233–238</ref>

=== Military and technological developments ===
During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force and the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured [[cataphract]]-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.<ref name=NicolleWestern28>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 28–29</ref> During the early invasion period, the [[stirrup]] had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as [[shock troops]] because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider.<ref name=NicolleWestern30>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 30</ref> The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic [[composite bow]] in place of the earlier, and weaker, [[Scythia]]n composite bow.<ref name=NicolleWestern31>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 30–31</ref> Another development was the increasing use of [[longsword]]s<ref name=NicolleWestern34>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 34</ref> and the progressive replacement of [[scale armour]] by [[mail armour]] and [[lamellar armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern39>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 39</ref>

The importance of infantry and light cavalry declined during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of [[Conscription|militia-type levies]] of the free population declined over the Carolingian period.<ref name=NicolleWestern58>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 58–59</ref> Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been [[mounted infantry]], rather than true cavalry.<ref name=NicolleWestern76>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 76</ref> One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the ''[[fyrd]]'', which were led by the local elites.<ref name=NicolleWestern67>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 67</ref> In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the [[crossbow]], which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages.<ref name=NicolleWestern80>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 80</ref> Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the [[horseshoe]], which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.<ref name=NicolleWestern88>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 88–91</ref>