Editing Nation state (section)

=== Origins ===
{{main|Nation}}
The origins and early history of nation-states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: "Which came first, the nation or the nation-state?" Scholars such as [[Steven Weber (professor)|Steven Weber]], [[David Woodward (cartographer)|David Woodward]], [[Michel Foucault]], and [[Jeremy Black (historian)|Jeremy Black]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Jeremy |last=Black |title=Maps and Politics |pages=59–98, 100–147 |date=1998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carneiro |first=Robert L. |s2cid=11536431 |date=21 August 1970 |title=A Theory Of The Origin Of The State |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=169 |issue=3947 |pages=733–738 |doi=10.1126/science.169.3947.733 |pmid=17820299 |bibcode=1970Sci...169..733C}}</ref><ref>Michel Foucault Lectures at the Collège de France Security, Territory, Population 2007</ref> have advanced the hypothesis that the nation-state did not arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it a political invention; rather, it is an inadvertent by-product of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in [[political economy]], [[capitalism]], [[mercantilism]], [[political geography]], and [[geography]]<ref>International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Direct Georeferencing : A New Standard in Photogrammetry for High Accuracy Mapping Volume XXXIX, pp. 5–9, 2012</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=International Archives of the Photogrammetry On Borders: From Ancient to Postmodern Times |volume=40 |pages=1–7 |date=2013}}</ref> combined with [[cartography]]<ref>International Archives of the Photogrammetry Borderlines: Maps and the spread of the Westphalian state from Europe to Asia Part One – The European Context Volume 40 pp. 111–116 2013</ref><ref>International Archives of the Photogrammetry Appearance and Appliance of the Twin-Cities Concept on the Russian-Chinese Border Volume 40 pp. 105–110 2013</ref> and [[Cartography#Technological changes|advances in map-making technologies]].<ref>{{cite news |title=How Maps Made the World |url=http://www.wilsonquarterly.com/article.cfm?AID=1992 |newspaper=[[Wilson Quarterly]] |date=Summer 2011 |access-date=28 July 2011 |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811005805/http://www.wilsonquarterly.com/article.cfm?AID=1992 |archive-date=11 August 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2tt0p94m |title= Mapping the Sovereign State: Cartographic Technology, Political Authority, and Systemic Change |last=Branch |first=Jordan Nathaniel |year=2011 |type=PhD thesis |publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]] |access-date=5 March 2012 |quote=Abstract: How did modern territorial states come to replace earlier forms of organization, defined by a wide variety of territorial and non-territorial forms of authority? Answering this question can help to explain both where our international political system came from and where it might be going. |via=eScholarship }}</ref> It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation-state arose.

For others, the nation existed first. Then nationalist movements arose for [[sovereignty]], and the nation-state was created to meet that demand. Some "[[Modernization theory|modernization theories]]" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation-state as a 19th-century European phenomenon facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass [[literacy]], and [[mass media]]. However, historians{{Who|date=August 2014}} also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in [[Portugal]] and the [[Dutch Republic]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Kw5vLbYq-4C&q=early+emergence+of+a+relatively+unified+state,+and+a+sense+of+common+identity,+in+Portugal+and+the+Dutch+Republic.&pg=PA344 |title=Understanding the Global Economy |date=2004 |publisher=Peace Education Books |isbn=978-0-9748961-0-6 |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and some date the emergence of nations even earlier. [[Adrian Hastings]], for instance, argued that [[Ancient Israel]] as depicted in the [[Hebrew Bible]] "gave the world the model of nationhood, and even nation-statehood";  however, after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|fall of Jerusalem]], the Jews lost this status for nearly two millennia, while still preserving their national identity until "the more inevitable rise of [[Zionism]]", in modern times, which sought to establish a [[State of Israel|nation-state]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hastings |first=Adrian |title=The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-59391-3 |pages=186–187}}</ref>

[[Eric Hobsbawm]] argues that the establishment of a [[French people|French]] nation was not the result of [[French nationalism]], which would not emerge until the end of the 19th century, but rather the policies implemented by pre-existing French states. Many of these reforms were implemented since the [[French Revolution]], at which time only half of the French people spoke some French{{snd}}with only a quarter of those speaking the version of it found in literature and places of learning.<ref name="hobsbawm1">{{cite book |last1=Hobsbawm |first1=Eric |author1-link=Eric Hobsbawm |title=Nations and nationalism since 1780 |date=1992 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521439612 |page=60 |edition=2nd}}</ref> As the number of [[Italian language|Italian]] speakers in Italy was even lower at the time of [[Italian unification]], similar arguments have been made regarding the modern [[Italians|Italian]] nation, with both the French and the Italian states promoting the replacement of various regional dialects and languages with [[Standard language|standardized dialects]]. The introduction of [[conscription]] and the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]'s [[Jules Ferry laws|1880s laws on public instruction]] facilitated the creation of a national identity under this theory.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-04 |title=French language law: The attempted ruination of France's linguistic diversity. |url=https://trinitycollegelawreview.org/french-language-law-the-attempted-ruination-of-frances-linguistic-diversity/ |access-date=2022-04-08 |website=Trinity College Law Review (TCLR) {{!}} [[Trinity College Dublin]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

[[File:Europe 1848 map en.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were democratic and liberal, intending to remove the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and to create independent nation-states.]]
Some nation-states, such as [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by [[Nationalism|nationalists]] during the 19th century. In both cases the territory was previously divided among other states, some very small. At first, the sense of common identity was a cultural movement, such as in the [[Völkisch movement|''Völkisch'' movement]] in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement precede the unification of the German and Italian nation-states.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

Historians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White, and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where they believe cultural unification preceded state unification, as ''ethnic nations'' or ''ethnic nationalities''. However, "state-driven" national unifications, such as in France, England, or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of ''civic nations'' or ''territory-based nationalities''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Kohn |orig-date=1955 |date=1965 |title=Nationalism: Its Meaning & History |publisher=Krieger Publishing Company |isbn=978-0898744798 |edition=Reprint}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Greenfeld |first=Liah |author-link=Liah Greenfeld |date=1992 |title=Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0674603196}}</ref><ref name="ref1">{{cite book |last=White |first=Philip L. |author-link=Philip L. White |date=2006 |chapter=Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State |editor-first=A. G. |editor-last=Hopkins |editor-link=A. G. Hopkins |title=Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=257–284 |isbn=978-1403987938}}</ref>

The idea of a nation-state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the "[[Westphalian system]]", following the [[Peace of Westphalia|Treaty of Westphalia]] (1648).  The [[Balance of power in international relations|balance of power]], which characterized that system, depended for its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether [[empire]]s or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation-state, but the nation-state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}  Before the Westphalian system, the closest geopolitical system was the "Chanyuan system" established in East Asia in 1005 through the [[Chanyuan Treaty|Treaty of Chanyuan]], which, like the Westphalian peace treaties, designated national borders between the independent regimes of China's [[Song dynasty]] and the semi-nomadic [[Liao dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Yuan Julian |date=July 2018 |title=Frontier, Fortification, and Forestation: Defensive Woodland on the Song–Liao Border in the Long Eleventh Century |url=https://www.academia.edu/37471839 |journal=Journal of Chinese History |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=313–334 |doi=10.1017/jch.2018.7 |s2cid=133980555 |issn=2059-1632 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  This system was copied and developed in East Asia in the following centuries until the establishment of the pan-Eurasian [[Mongol Empire]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pakhomov |first=Oleg |title=Political Culture of East Asia – a civilization of total power |date=2022 |publisher=Springer-Verlag, Singapore |isbn=978-981-19-0778-4 |location=[S.l.] |oclc=1304248303}}</ref>

The nation-state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of [[Romanticism]], at first as the "natural" expression of the individual peoples ([[romantic nationalism]]: see [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]'s conception of the ''[[People|Volk]]'', later opposed by [[Ernest Renan]]). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation led to a redefinition of the nation-state in these terms.<ref name="ref1"/> [[Racism]], which in [[Henri de Boulainvilliers|Boulainvilliers]]'s theories was inherently anti[[Patriotism|patriotic]] and antinationalist, joined itself with [[Colonialism|colonialist]] imperialism and "continental [[imperialism]]", most notably in [[pan-Germanic]] and [[pan-Slavic]] movements.<ref>{{cite book |first=Hannah |last=Arendt |author-link=Hannah Arendt |title=[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]] |date=1951}}</ref>

The relationship between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century through [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]]. The specific combination of "nation" ("people") and "state" expressed in such terms as the ''völkischer Staat'' and implemented in laws such as the 1935 [[Nuremberg laws]] made fascist states such as early [[Nazi Germany]] qualitatively different from non-fascist nation-states. [[Minorities]] were not considered part of the people (''Volk'') and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither [[Jews]] nor the [[Romani people|Roma]] were considered part of the people, and both were specifically targeted for persecution. German [[nationality law]] defined "German" based on German ancestry, excluding ''all'' non-Germans from the people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tourlamain |first=Guy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJsWzgEACAAJ |title=Völkisch Writers and National Socialism: A Study of Right-Wing Political Culture in Germany, 1890–1960 |date=2014 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03911-958-5 |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

In recent years, a nation-state's claim to absolute [[sovereignty]] within its borders has been criticized.<ref name="ref1"/> A global political system based on [[International law|international agreements]] and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international [[corporation]]s and [[non-governmental organizations]], are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation-states.

According to Andreas Wimmer and Yuval Feinstein, nation-states tended to emerge when power shifts allowed nationalists to overthrow existing regimes or absorb existing administrative units.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wimmer |first1=Andreas |last2=Feinstein |first2=Yuval |s2cid=10075481 |date=2010 |title=The Rise of the Nation-State across the World, 1816 to 2001 |journal=[[American Sociological Review]] |language=en |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=764–790 |doi=10.1177/0003122410382639 |issn=0003-1224}}</ref> Xue Li and Alexander Hicks link the frequency of nation-state creation to processes of diffusion that emanate from international organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xue |last2=Hicks |first2=Alexander |s2cid=147753503 |date=2016 |title=World Polity Matters: Another Look at the Rise of the Nation-State across the World, 1816 to 2001 |journal=[[American Sociological Review]] |language=en |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=596–607 |doi=10.1177/0003122416641371 |issn=0003-1224|doi-access=free }}</ref>