Editing Negative campaigning (section)

== Risks and consequences ==
Some strategists say that an effect of negative campaigning is that while it motivates the base of support it can alienate centrist and undecided voters from the political process, reducing [[voter turnout]] and radicalizing politics.<ref name="Ansolabehere, S. 1995"/> 
In a study done by Gina Garramone about how negative advertising affects the political process, it was found that a consequence of negative campaigning is greater image discrimination of the candidates and greater attitude polarization. While positive ads also contributed to the image discrimination and attitude polarization, Garramone found that negative campaigning played a more influential role in the discrimination and polarization than positive campaigning.<ref name="Garramone 1990">{{cite journal | last1=Garramone | first1=Gina M. | last2=Atkin | first2=Charles K. | last3=Pinkleton | first3=Bruce E. | last4=Cole | first4=Richard T. | title=Effects of negative political advertising on the political process | journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=34 | issue=3 | year=1990 | issn=0883-8151 | doi=10.1080/08838159009386744 | pages=299–311}}</ref>

Negative ads can produce serious backlash. A [[1993 Chrétien attack ad|disastrous ad]] was run by the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] in the [[1993 Canadian federal election]], apparently emphasizing [[Liberal Party of Canada]] leader [[Jean Chrétien]]'s partial facial paralysis, which was caused by [[Bell's palsy]], in a number of unflattering photos, with the subtext of criticizing his platforms. Chrétien took maximum advantage of the opportunity to gain the public's sympathy as a man who struggled with a physical disability and his party's subsequent overwhelming victory in the election helped reduce the governing Progressive Conservatives to two seats, along with losing official party status.

A similar backlash happened to the Liberal Party in the [[2006 Canadian federal election|2006 federal election]] for running an [[2006 Liberal Party of Canada election ads|attack ad]] that suggested that [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] leader [[Stephen Harper]] would use Canadian soldiers to patrol Canadian cities, and impose some kind of martial law. The ad was only available from the Liberal Party's web site for a few hours prior to the release of the attack ads on television; nevertheless, it was picked up by the media and widely criticized for its absurdity, in particular the sentence "we're not making this up; we're not allowed to make this stuff up". Liberal MP Keith Martin expressed his disapproval of "whoever the idiot who approved that ad was," shortly before Liberal leader Paul Martin (no relation) stated that he had personally approved them. The effect of the ads was to diminish the credibility of the party's other attack ads. It offended many Canadians, particularly those in the military, some of whom were fighting in [[Afghanistan]] at the time. (See [[2006 Canadian federal election]])

In the 2008 US Senate race in [[North Carolina]], Republican incumbent [[Elizabeth Dole]] attempted an attack ad on Democratic challenger [[Kay Hagan]], who had taken a small lead in polls, by tying her to [[atheists]]. Dole's campaign released an ad questioning Hagan's religion and it included a voice saying "There is no God!" over a picture of Kay Hagan's face. The voice was not Hagan's but it is believed the ad implied that it was. Initially, it was thought the ad would work as religion has historically been a very important issue to voters in the American south, but the ad produced a backlash across the state and Hagan responded forcefully with an ad saying that she was a Sunday school teacher and was a religious person. Hagan also claimed Dole was trying to change the subject from the economy (the ad appeared during the [[Great Recession]]). Hagan's lead in polls doubled and she won the race by a nine-point margin.

Because of the possible harm that can come from being seen as a negative campaigner, candidates often pledge to refrain from negative attacks. This pledge is usually abandoned when an opponent is perceived to be "going negative," with the first retaliatory attack being, ironically, an accusation that the opponent is a negative campaigner.

While some research has found advantages and other has found disadvantages, some studies find no difference between negative and positive approaches.<ref>{{cite conference |conference=2005 Meeting of the American Political Science Association, September 1–4, Washington, D.C. |url=http://americandemocracy.nd.edu/working_papers/documents/Arceneaux_Nickerson_Negative_Messages.pdf |title=Two Field Experiments Testing Negative Campaign Tactics |author1=Kevin Arceneaux |author2=David W. Nickerson |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013318/http://americandemocracy.nd.edu/working_papers/documents/Arceneaux_Nickerson_Negative_Messages.pdf |archive-date=March 25, 2009 }}</ref>

Research published in the Journal of Advertising found that negative political advertising makes the body want to turn away physically, but the mind remembers negative messages. The findings are based on research conducted by James Angelini, professor of communication at the [[University of Delaware]], in collaboration with Samuel Bradley, assistant professor of advertising at [[Texas Tech University]], and Sungkyoung Lee of [[Indiana University]], which used ads that aired during the 2000 presidential election. During the study, the researchers placed electrodes under the eyes of willing participants and showed them a series of 30-second ads from both the [[George W. Bush]] and [[Al Gore]] campaigns. The electrodes picked up on the "startle response," the automatic eye movement typically seen in response to snakes, spiders and other threats. Compared to positive or neutral messages, negative advertising prompted greater reflex reactions and a desire to move away.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=University of Delaware| title=Viewers Are Repulsed by Negative Campaign Ads | via=Newswise | date=2008-10-09 | url=https://www.newswise.com/coronavirus/viewers-are-repulsed-by-negative-campaign-ads}}</ref>