Editing Nocebo (section)

==Effects==

===Side effects of drugs===
It has been shown that, due to the nocebo effect, warning patients about drugs' side effects can contribute to the causation of such effects, whether the drug is real or not.{{sfn|Colloca|Miller|2011}}{{sfn|Barsky|Saintfort|Rogers|Borus|2002}} This effect has been observed in clinical trials: according to a 2013 review, the dropout rate among placebo-treated patients in a [[meta-analysis]] of 41 clinical trials of [[Parkinson's disease]] treatments was 8.8%.{{sfn|Stathis|Smpiliris|Konitsiotis|Mitsikostas|2013}} A 2013 review found that nearly 1 out of 20 patients receiving a placebo in clinical trials for depression dropped out due to adverse events, which were believed to have been caused by the nocebo effect.{{sfn|Mitsikostas|Mantonakis|Chalarakis|2014}}

In January 2022, a [[systematic review]] and [[meta-analysis]] concluded that nocebo responses accounted for 72% of adverse effects after the first [[COVID-19 vaccine]] dose and 52% after the second dose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haas |first1=Julia W. |last2=Bender |first2=Friederike L. |last3=Ballou |first3=Sarah |last4=Kelley |first4=John M. |last5=Wilhelm |first5=Marcel |last6=Miller |first6=Franklin G. |last7=Rief |first7=Winfried |last8=Kaptchuk |first8=Ted J. |title=Frequency of Adverse Events in the Placebo Arms of COVID-19 Vaccine Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Network Open |date=18 January 2022 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=e2143955 |doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.43955 |pmid=35040967 |pmc=8767431 |issn=2574-3805}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Ian |title='Nocebo effect' cause of most COVID vaccine side effects, study says |url=https://www.euronews.com/next/2022/01/19/two-thirds-of-covid-vaccine-side-effects-caused-by-nocebo-effect-not-the-jab-itself-study- |work=euronews |date=19 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Many studies show that the formation of nocebo responses are influenced by inappropriate health education, media work, and other discourse makers who induce health anxiety and negative expectations.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Goli |first1=Farzad |title=How to Prescribe Information: Health Education Without Health Anxiety and Nocebo Effects |date=2016 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-35092-9_7 |work=Biosemiotic Medicine |volume=5 |pages=151–193 |editor-last=Goli |editor-first=Farzad |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-35092-9_7 |isbn=978-3-319-35091-2 |last2=Monajemi |first2=Alireza |last3=Ahmadzadeh |first3=Gholam Hossein |last4=Malekian |first4=Azadeh|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Researchers studying the side effects of [[statin]]s in UK determined that a large proportion of reported side effects were related not to any pharmacological cause but to the nocebo effect. In the UK, publicity in 2013 about the apparent side effects caused hundreds of thousands of patients to stop taking statins, leading to an estimated 2,000 additional cardiovascular events in the subsequent years.<ref name="pj1"/>

===Electromagnetic hypersensitivity===
Evidence suggests that the symptoms of [[electromagnetic hypersensitivity]] are caused by the nocebo effect.{{sfn|Rubin|Nieto-Hernandez|Wessely|2009}}<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-02/disconnected | title=The Man Who Was Allergic to Radio Waves | work=Popular Science | date=4 March 2010 | access-date=1 December 2014 | author=Geary, James}}</ref>

===Pain===
Verbal suggestion can cause [[hyperalgesia]] (increased sensitivity to pain) and [[allodynia]] (perception of a tactile stimulus as painful) as a result of the nocebo effect.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colloca |first1=Luana |title=The role of learning in nocebo and placebo effects. |journal=Pain |date= May 2008 |volume=136 |issue=1–2 |pages=211–218 |doi=10.1016/j.pain.2008.02.006 |pmid=18372113|s2cid=44220488 }}</ref> Nocebo hyperalgesia is believed to involve the activation of [[cholecystokinin]] receptors.{{sfn|Enck|Benedetti|Schedlowski|2008}}