Editing Non-monogamy (section)

== Legal frameworks of non-monogamy ==

=== Culturally institutionalised non-monogamy ===
'''Polygyny''' is legally recognised and regulated in many Muslim-majority countries, where Islamic law permits a man to marry up to four wives under specific conditions. In some countries like [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[Qatar]], [[Jordan]], [[Yemen]], [[Algeria]], and [[Mauritania]] polygyny is legal and regulated by a Family Law.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Welchman |first=Lynn |doi=10.5117/9789053569740 |title=Women and Muslim Family Laws in Arab States : A Comparative Overview of Textual Development and Advocacy |date=2007 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-5356-974-0 |location=Amsterdam|doi-broken-date=23 December 2024 }}</ref> In other countries like [[Pakistan]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], [[Morocco]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] polygyny is allowed only under conditions like first wife’s disability or infertility, requires the written consent of the first wife and sometimes of a judge.<ref name=Purwanto/><ref name=":9" /> However, over the past several decades, some of the Muslim-majority countries have experienced significant reforms in Muslim Family Law and several countries have taken steps to ban polygyny, reflecting changing societal attitudes and efforts to promote gender equality. For example, Tunisia banned polygyny as part of its  family law reform under president [[Habib Bourguiba]] in 1956.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Charrad |first=Mounira |editor-first1=Mounira |editor-last1=Charrad |doi=10.1525/9780520935471 |title=States and Women's Rights |date=2002-12-31 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-93547-1}}</ref> As part of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]'s secular reforms, Turkey banned polygyny in 1926, replacing Islamic family law with a Swiss-inspired civil code.<ref>{{Cite SSRN |last=Yilmaz |first=Ihsan |date=2018 |title=Semi-Official Turkish Muslim Legal Pluralism: Encounters between Secular Official Law and Unofficial Shariia |ssrn=3173990}}</ref> In [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], and [[Tajikistan]] polygyny was prohibited under [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] law and these bans were reaffirmed or codified into new national family laws in 1998 after these countries regained independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thibault |first=Hélène |title=The Many Faces of Polygyny in Kazakhstan. |date=2021 |publisher=Central Asia Program Papers.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shields |first=Acacia |date=2006 |title=Reconciled to Violence State Failure to Stop Domestic Abuse and Abduction of Women in Kyrgyzstan |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2006/09/27/reconciled-violence/state-failure-stop-domestic-abuse-and-abduction-women |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>

'''Polyandry''' is considered incompatible with Sharia law and is therefore not recognised in Muslim-majority countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moosa |first=N |date=2009-09-24 |title=Polygynous Muslim Marriages in South Africa: Their Potential Impact on the Incidence of HIV/AIDS |journal=Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal/Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad |volume=12 |issue=3 |doi=10.4314/pelj.v12i3.46271 |doi-access=free |issn=1727-3781}}</ref> Polyandry persists informally in certain traditional societies, such as in the Himalayan regions of [[Tibet]] and [[Nepal]], where fraternal polyandry helps preserve family property and manage limited agricultural land, and among communities like the [[Toda people|Toda tribe]] in South India and parts of Himachal Pradesh, though it is not legally recognised.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Childs |first=Geoff |date=January 2003 |title=Polyandry and population growth in a historical Tibetan society |journal=The History of the Family |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=423–444 |doi=10.1016/S1081-602X(03)00045-9 |issn=1081-602X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hays |first=Jeffrey |title=POLYANDRY (MARRIAGE TO MULTIPLE HUSBANDS) IN TIBET |website=Facts and Details |url=https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub35/entry-4434.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2024-12-22 |language=en}}</ref>

In the United States, Canada, all European countries, and Russia, marriage is legally defined as a union between two individuals, and no form of polygamy is legally recognised.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=Martha |title=Polygamy in the monogamous world: multicultural challenges for Western law and policy |last2=Kaufman |first2=Amy J. |date=2010 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-313-37952-9 |location=Santa Barbara, Calif |oclc=502674978}}</ref> In the United States and Canada, polygamy is strictly prohibited, with violations resulting in criminal penalties such as fines or imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McIssac |first=Ian A |date=2017-03-03 |title=Reference Re Supreme Court Act: Atlantic Canada and Regional Considerations in Supreme Court of Canada Appointments |journal=Constitutional Forum / Forum Constitutionnel |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=9 |doi=10.21991/c90t1m |issn=1927-4165|doi-access=free }}</ref> Across Europe, polygamous marriages are not recognised due to public policy conflicts, gender equality principles, and fundamental legal values. For example, in France and Germany, polygamy is not recognised under civil law, and attempts to enter into such unions can result in criminal charges, denial of marital benefits, or annulment of subsequent marriages. Polygamy is broadly unrecognised in European countries, posing challenges for asylum seekers with multiple spouses, as typically only one spouse is granted a residence permit and international protection.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=European Migration Network Ad-Hoc Query on Polygamous marriage |url=https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-09/ad-hoc-queries-1032_es_polygamous_marriage_wider_diss_protection.pdf |website=European Commission}}</ref> However, some countries may evaluate such cases individually, considering specific circumstances.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Iversen |first=Michelle Rinaldo |date=2017 |title=The legal status of polygamy in England and Germany - a comparison Domicile vs. Nationality |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/8908030 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Strik |first1=Tineke |title=Family Reunification: A Barrier or Facilitator of Integration? A Comparative Study |date=2014 |work=Freiheit |pages=92–108 |url=https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845252759-92 |access-date=2024-12-23 |publisher=Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG |last2=Nissen |first2=Ellen|doi=10.5771/9783845252759-92 |isbn=978-3-8452-5275-9 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Zaccaroni |first=Giovanni |title=Polygamous Marriages and Reunification of Families on the Move Under EU Law: An Overview |date=2024 |work=Children in Migration and International Family Law |pages=313–323 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=Stefan |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-71598-3_20 |access-date=2024-12-23 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-71598-3_20 |isbn=978-3-031-71597-6 |editor2-last=Heiderhoff |editor2-first=Bettina|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Consensual non-monogamy ===
Unlike polygamy, CNM does not involve multiple legally recognised marriages but instead consists of consensual agreements between adults to engage in multiple romantic or sexual relationships. This distinction allows CNM to operate within the bounds of the law in jurisdictions where monogamy is the legal marital standard. At the same time, the lack of legal recognition for CNM relationships means they are excluded from many legal protections, such as inheritance rights, hospital visitation, spousal visas, and parental responsibilities, as existing legal frameworks typically do not accommodate multiple concurrent partnerships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Füllgrabe |first1=Doris |last2=Smith |first2=David S. |date=2023-10-01 |title="Monogamy? In this Economy?": Stigma and Resilience in Consensual Non-Monogamous Relationships |journal=Sexuality & Culture |language=en |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1955–1976 |doi=10.1007/s12119-023-10099-7 |issn=1936-4822|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite SSRN |last=Emens |first=Elizabeth F. |date=2004 |title=Monogamy's Law: Compulsory Monogamy and Polyamorous Existence |ssrn=506242}}</ref><ref name=":12" /> However, in recent years Canada and some of the U.S. states have taken steps toward recognising CNM relationships. In April 2018, the Newfoundland and Labrador Supreme Court in Canada recognized three adults in a polyamorous relationship as the legal parents of a child, marking a significant precedent in family law.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Challborn |first=Margot R. |date=2024 |title=Polyamory and Legal Parentage: The Possibilities of C.C. (Re) and BCSC 767 for Expanding Conceptions of Kinship in Canada |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10691-023-09539-4 |journal=Feminist Legal Studies |language=en |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=331–351 |doi=10.1007/s10691-023-09539-4 |issn=0966-3622|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Similarly, in June 2020, Somerville, Massachusetts, became the first U.S. city to adopt an ordinance permitting domestic partnerships involving more than two adults, thereby legally recognising CNM relationships.<ref>{{Cite web |last=hlr |date=2022-03-10 |title=Three's Company, Too: The Emergence of Polyamorous Partnership |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-135/threes-company-too-the-emergence-of-polyamorous-partnership-ordinances/#:~:text=In%20the%20summer%20of%202020,legal%20recognition%20of%20their%20relationships. |access-date=2024-12-23 |website=Harvard Law Review |language=en-US}}</ref>

Consensually non-monogamous relationships have no legal recognition in Muslim-majority countries, and extramarital relationships, even consensual, are typically criminalised.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Hosseini |first=Ziba Mir |date=2010 |title=Criminalizing Sexuality: Zina Laws as Violence Against Women in Muslim Contexts |url=https://documentation.lastradainternational.org/lsidocs/islamic.pdf}}</ref>

=== Infidelity ===
Secretive non-monogamy (non-consensual non-monogamy), commonly referred to as [[infidelity]] or [[adultery]], is addressed differently across global legal frameworks, with variations based on cultural, religious, and societal norms. In most Western nations like the United States, Canada, and much of Europe, while viewed as a moral transgression, infidelity is not punishable under criminal law.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kršljanin |first=Nina |title=Adultery as a Crime in the Western World and Beyond: From a Man's Property to (In)Fidelity, from Discrimination to Decriminalization |date=2023 |work=Feminist Approaches to Law |series=Gender Perspectives in Law |volume=1 |pages=129–150 |editor-last=Vujadinović |editor-first=Dragica |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-14781-4_6 |access-date=2024-12-24 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-14781-4_6 |isbn=978-3-031-14780-7 |editor2-last=Álvarez del Cuvillo |editor2-first=Antonio |editor3-last=Strand |editor3-first=Susanne|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Conversely, in several Muslim-majority countries and others with laws influenced by religious doctrine, infidelity is criminalised under [[adultery laws]].<ref name=":0" /> Countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan classify extramarital relationships as criminal acts, with punishments ranging from fines and imprisonment to flogging or, in extreme cases, capital punishment.<ref name=":0" /> Marital infidelity is explicitly recognised as grounds for divorce under the laws of Iraq, Algeria and the United Arab Emirates.<ref name=":9" /> In some jurisdictions, infidelity laws apply differently based on gender, with women often facing harsher consequences than men.<ref>{{Cite web |last=katharina.kiener-manu |title=Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Module 9 Key Issues: Topic 1 - Gender-based discrimination and women in conflict with the law |url=https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/crime-prevention-criminal-justice/module-9/key-issues/1--gender-based-discrimination-and-women-in-conflict-with-the-law.html |access-date=2024-12-24 |website=www.unodc.org |language=en}}</ref>