Editing Nonverbal communication (section)

==History of research==
[[File:Charles Darwin 01.jpg|thumb|Charles Darwin wrote ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' in 1872.]]
Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior was started in 1872 with the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s book, ''The Expression of the [[Emotions]] in Man and Animals''.<ref name="Pease_2004"/> In the book, Darwin argued that all mammals, both humans and animals, showed emotion through facial expressions. He posed questions such as: "Why do our facial expressions of emotions take the particular forms they do?" and "Why do we wrinkle our nose when we are disgusted and bare our teeth when we are enraged?"<ref name="Krauss_2000">{{cite journal| vauthors = Krauss RM, Chen Y, Chawla P | year=2000|title=Nonverbal behavior and nonverbal communication: What do conversational hand gestures tell us?|journal=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology|volume=1|issue=2|pages=389–450|doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60241-5| isbn=9780120152285|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~rmk7/PDF/Adv.pdf}}</ref> Darwin attributed these facial expressions to serviceable associated habits, which are behaviors that earlier in our evolutionary history had specific and direct functions.<ref name="Krauss_2000"/> For example, a species that attacked by biting, baring the teeth was a necessary act before an assault and wrinkling the nose reduced the inhalation of foul odors. In response to the question asking why facial expressions persist even when they no longer serve their original purposes, Darwin's predecessors have developed a highly valued explanation. According to Darwin, humans continue to make facial expressions because they have acquired communicative value throughout evolutionary history.<ref name="Krauss_2000"/> In other words, humans utilize facial expressions as external evidence of their internal state. Although ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' was not one of Darwin's most successful books in terms of its quality and overall impact in the field, his initial ideas started the abundance of research on the types, effects, and expressions of nonverbal communication and behavior.<ref name="Hecht_1999">{{cite journal| vauthors = Hecht MA, Ambady N | year=1999|url=http://ambadylab.stanford.edu/pubs/1999Hecht.pdf|title=Nonverbal communication and psychology: Past and future|journal=The New Jersey Journal of Communication|volume=7|issue=2|pages=1–12|doi=10.1080/15456879909367364|citeseerx=10.1.1.324.3485}}</ref> Charles Darwin was also a renowned British naturalist and biologist best known for developing the theory of evolution through natural selection<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-15 |title=Charles Darwin {{!}} Biography, Education, Books, Theory of Evolution, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> 

Despite the introduction of nonverbal communication in the 1800s, the emergence of behaviorism in the 1920s paused further research on nonverbal communication.<ref name="Hecht_1999"/> Behaviorism is defined as the theory of learning that describes people's behavior as acquired through conditioning.<ref name="Sanderson_2010">{{cite book| vauthors = Sanderson CA |year=2010|title=Social Psychology|publisher=Wiley}}</ref> Behaviorists such as B.F. Skinner trained pigeons to engage in various behaviors to demonstrate how animals engage in behaviors with rewards.<ref name="Sanderson_2010"/>

While most [[psychology]] researchers were exploring behaviorism, the study of nonverbal communication as recorded on film began in 1955–56 at the Center for Advanced Study in [[Behavioral Science]]s through a project which came to be called the ''Natural History of an Interview''. The initial participants included two psychiatrists, Frieda Fromm-Reichman and Henry Brosin, two linguists, Norman A. McQuown and [[Charles Hockett]], and also two anthropologists, [[Clyde Kluckhohn]] and [[David M. Schneider]] (these last two withdrew by the end of 1955, and did not participate in the major group project). In their place, two other anthropologists, [[Ray Birdwhistell]], already then known as the founder of [[kinesics]], the study of body motion communication,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Birdwhistell RL |title=Introduction to Kinesics |date=1952 |publisher=Department of State, Foreign Service Institute |location=Washington, DC}}</ref> and [[Gregory Bateson]], known more generally as a human communication theorist, both joined the team in 1956. Albert Scheflen and [[Adam Kendon]] were among those who joined one of the small research teams continuing research once the year at CASBS ended. The project analyzed a film made by Bateson, using an analytic method called at the time ''natural history'', and later, mostly by Scheflen, ''context analysis''. The result remained unpublished, as it was enormous and unwieldy, but it was available on microfilm by 1971.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McQuown N |title=The Natural History of an Interview |date=1971 |publisher=University of Chicago Joseph Regenstein Library, Department of Photoduplication |location=Chicago, IL}}</ref> The method involves transcribing filmed or videotaped behavior in excruciating detail, and was later used in studying the sequence and structure of human greetings, social behaviors at parties, and the function of posture during interpersonal interaction.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Scheflen AE |title=Communicational structure: Analysis of a psychotherapy transaction |date=1973 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kendon A, Harris RM, Key MR |title=Organization of behavior in face-to-face interaction |date=1975 |publisher=Mouton |location=The Hague, Netherlands}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kendon A |title=Studies in the behavior of social interaction |date=1977 |publisher=Peter De Ridder Press |location=Lisse, The Netherlands}}</ref><ref name="Birdwhistell_1970">{{cite book | vauthors = Birdwhistell RL |title=Kinesics and context: Essays on body motion communication|date=1970|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia, PA}}</ref>

[[Research]] on nonverbal communication rocketed during the mid-1960s by a number of psychologists and researchers. [[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Michael Argyle]] and [[Janet Dean Fodor]], for example, studied the relationship between eye contact and conversational distance. Ralph V. Exline examined patterns of looking while speaking and looking while listening.<ref name="Hecht_1999"/> [[Eckhard Hess]] produced several studies pertaining to pupil dilation that were published in ''Scientific American''. [[Robert Sommer]] studied the relationship between personal space and the environment.<ref name="Hecht_1999"/> [[Robert Rosenthal (psychologist)|Robert Rosenthal]] discovered that expectations made by teachers and researchers can influence their outcomes, and that subtle, nonverbal cues may play an important role in this process.<ref name="Hecht_1999"/> [[Albert Mehrabian]] studied the nonverbal cues of liking and immediacy. By the 1970s, a number of scholarly volumes in psychology summarized the growing body of research, such as Shirley Weitz's ''Nonverbal Communication'' and Marianne LaFrance and [[Clara Mayo]]'s ''Moving Bodies''.<ref name="Hecht_1999"/> Popular books included ''Body Language'' ([[Julius Fast|Fast]], 1970), which focused on how to use nonverbal communication to attract other people, and ''How to Read a Person Like a Book'' ([[Gerard Nierenberg|Nierenberg]] & Calero, 1971) which examined nonverbal behavior in negotiation situations.<ref name="Hecht_1999"/> The journal ''[[Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior]]'' was founded in 1976.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/10421456 |title=Environmental psychology and nonverbal behavior [electronic resource] |website=Princeton University Library Catalog |access-date=2018-08-16 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805172818/https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/10421456 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1970, Argyle hypothesized that although spoken language is used for communicating the meaning about events external to the person communicating, the nonverbal codes are used to create and strengthen [[interpersonal relationships]].<ref name="Argyle_1970" /> When someone wishes to avoid conflicting or embarrassing events during communication, it is considered proper and correct by the hypothesis to communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally instead of verbally.<ref>Rosenthal, Robert & Bella M. DePaulo (1979). "Sex differences in accommodation in nonverbal communication". In R. Rosenthal. Skill in nonverbal communication: Individual difference. Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain. pp. 68–103.</ref> Along with this philosophy, Michael Argyle also found and concluded in 1988 that there are five main functions of nonverbal body behavior and gestures in human communications: self-presentation of one's whole personality, rituals and cultural greetings, expressing interpersonal attitudes, expressing emotions, and to accompany speech in managing the cues set in the interactions between the speaker and the listener.<ref name="Argyle_1970" />