Editing Open educational resources (section)

==History==
The term "[[learning object]]" was coined in 1994 by Wayne Hodgins and quickly gained currency among educators and instructional designers, popularizing the idea that digital materials can be designed to allow easy reuse in a wide range of teaching and learning situations.<ref name=expert-meeting>{{cite web |first = David|last= Wiley|title= Expert Meeting on Open Educational Resources |website=Centre for Educational Research and Innovation|date= 2006-02-06|access-date = 2015-11-18|url=https://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/36224377.pdf}}</ref>

The OER movement originated from developments in [[open and distance learning]] (ODL) and in the wider context of a culture of [[open knowledge]], [[Open-source model|open source]], free sharing and peer collaboration, which emerged in the late 20th century.<ref name=expert-meeting /><ref name=":6" /> OER and [[FLOSS|Free/Libre Open Source Software]] (FLOSS), for instance, have many aspects in common,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://oerwiki.iiep.unesco.org/index.php/FOSS_solutions_for_OER_-_summary_report| title = FOSS solutions for OER – summary report| access-date = 2011-02-20| date = 2009-05-28| publisher = Unesco| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110728143259/http://oerwiki.iiep.unesco.org/index.php/FOSS_solutions_for_OER_-_summary_report| archive-date = 2011-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| first=Jan|last= Hylén|title = Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational Resources |place = Paris, France|publisher = OECD Publishing|year = 2007|doi = 10.1787/9789264032125-en|access-date = 2010-12-03|url = http://www.sourceoecd.org/education/9789264031746|isbn= 9789264031746}}</ref> a connection first established in 1998 by [[David A. Wiley|David Wiley]]<ref name="grossman">{{Cite news|last=Grossman |first=Lev |title=New Free License to Cover Content Online |work=Netly News |access-date=2010-12-27 |date=1998-07-18 |url=http://www.time.com/time/digital/daily/0,2822,621,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000619122406/http://www.time.com/time/digital/daily/0%2C2822%2C621%2C00.html |archive-date=2000-06-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> who coined the term "[[open content]]" and introduced the concept by analogy with open source.<ref name="Open Content">{{cite web|last=Wiley |first=David |title=Open Content |work=OpenContent.org |access-date=2010-01-12 |year=1998 |url=http://www.opencontent.org/home.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990429221830/http://www.opencontent.org/home.shtml |archive-date=April 29, 1999 }}</ref> [[Richard Baraniuk]] made the same connection independently in 1999 with the founding of the first global OER initiative, Connexions (now called [[OpenStax CNX]]).<ref>"[http://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/11/08/connexions.learning/ Throw Away your School Books: Here Comes Textbook 2.0]," CNN.com, 8 November 2007</ref>

The [[MIT OpenCourseWare]] project is credited for having sparked a global Open Educational Resources Movement after announcing in 2001 that it was going to put [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s entire course catalog online and launching this project in 2002.<ref name="guttenplan">{{Cite news| last = Guttenplan| first = D. D.| title = For Exposure, Universities Put Courses on the Web| work = [[The New York Times]]| location = New York| access-date = 2010-12-19| date = 2010-11-01| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/01/world/europe/01iht-educLede01.html?pagewanted=all}}</ref> 
Other contemporaneous OER projects include [[OpenStax CNX|Connexions]], which was launched by [[Richard Baraniuk]] in 1999 and showcased with MIT OpenCourseWare at the launch of the [[Creative Commons license|Creative Commons]] open licenses in 2002,<ref>[https://creativecommons.org/2002/12/16/creativecommonsunveilsmachinereadablecopyrightlicenses/ Creative Commons Unveils Machine-Readable Copyright Licenses], Creative Commons, 16 December 2002</ref> and the NROC Project, launched by Gary W. Lopez in 2003 that developed the HippoCampus OER site<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nroc.org/hippocampus|title=HippoCampus|work=www.nroc.org|access-date=2022-10-05}}</ref> and EdReady personalized learning platform.<ref name="EdReady">{{cite web|url=https://www.nroc.org/edready|title=EdReady|work=www.nroc.org|access-date=2022-10-05}}</ref>
Following an MIT OpenCourseWare conference in Beijing, the [[China Open Resources for Education]] (CORE) was established in November 2003. CORE's goal was to provide these resources to hundreds of universities in China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldberg |first=Chana |date=2015-01-20 |title=Open Source Textbooks [INFOGRAPHIC] |url=https://blogs.onlineeducation.touro.edu/open-source-textbooks-infographic/ |access-date=2024-02-22 |website=Online Education Blog of Touro University |language=en-US}}</ref> In a first manifestation of this movement, MIT entered a partnership with [[Utah State University]], where assistant professor of instructional technology David Wiley set up a distributed peer support network for the OCW's content through voluntary, self-organizing communities of interest.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globetechnology.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030904.gttwtico04/BNStory/einsider/ |work=The Globe and Mail|place=Toronto| title=MIT initiative could revolutionize learning| first=David| last=Ticoll| date=2003-09-04| access-date=2010-12-20 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030920155754/http://www.globetechnology.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030904.gttwtico04/BNStory/einsider/ |archive-date = 2003-09-20}}</ref>
The community college system was also an early participant in the movement. In 2004, the Sofia project<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sofia |url=http://sofia.fhda.edu/index.htm |access-date=December 1, 2022 |website=Internet Archive Wayback Machine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070723140846/http://sofia.fhda.edu/index.htm |archive-date=2007-07-23 }}</ref> was launched by the [[Foothill–De Anza Community College District|Foothill-De Anza Community College District]] with funding support from [[The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation]]. Content for eight community-college level courses was provided online for free, in what was termed an "open content initiative."

The term "open educational resources" was first adopted at [[UNESCO]]'s 2002 Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries.<ref name="Johnstone" />

In 2005 OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) launched a 20-month study to analyse and map the scale and scope of initiatives regarding "open educational resources" in terms of their purpose, content, and funding.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.oecd.org/document/20/0,3343,en_2649_35845581_35023444_1_1_1_1,00.html |title= Open Educational Resources|access-date = 2011-01-02| publisher = CERI}}</ref> The report "Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational Resources",<ref>{{Cite book|title = Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational Resources|place = Paris, France|publisher = OECD Publishing|year = 2007|doi = 10.1787/9789264032125-en|access-date = 2010-12-03|url = http://www.sourceoecd.org/education/9789264031746|isbn = 9789264031746}}</ref> published in May 2007, is the main output of the project, which involved a number of expert meetings in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title = CERI - Open Educational Resources: Meetings and Conferences - OECD|url = http://www.oecd.org/document/53/0,3746,en_2649_35845581_35735605_1_1_1_1,00.html|website = www.oecd.org|access-date = 2015-04-27}}</ref>

In September 2007, the [[Open Society Institute]] and the [[Shuttleworth Foundation]] convened a meeting in Cape Town to which thirty leading proponents of [[open education]] were invited to collaborate on the text of a manifesto. The [[Cape Town Open Education Declaration]] was released on 22 January 2008,<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 5| issue = 5| last = Deacon| first = Andrew|author2=Catherine Wynsculley| title = Educators and the Cape Town Open Learning Declaration: Rhetorically reducing distance| journal = International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT| access-date = 2010-12-27| year = 2009| url = http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=878&layout=html}}</ref> urging governments and publishers to make publicly funded educational materials available at no charge via the internet.<ref name="capetown-declaration">{{cite web | title = The Cape Town Open Education Declaration | work = Cape Town Declaration | access-date = 2010-12-27 | year = 2007 | url = http://www.capetowndeclaration.org/read-the-declaration }}</ref><ref name="sfgate">[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/01/21/EDRTUJ346.DTL Bringing open resources to textbooks and teaching], J. Wales, R. Baraniuk, [[San Francisco Chronicle]], 22 January 2008.</ref>

The global movement for OER culminated at the 1st World OER Congress convened in Paris on 20–22 June 2012 by UNESCO, [[Commonwealth of Learning|COL]] and other partners. The resulting [[UNESCO 2012 Paris OER Declaration|Paris OER Declaration]] (2012) reaffirmed the shared commitment of international organizations, governments, and institutions to promoting the open licensing and free sharing of publicly funded content, the development of national policies and strategies on OER, capacity-building, and open research.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002443/244365e.pdf|title=Open educational resources: policy, costs, transformation|last1=Miao|first1=Fengchun|last2=Mishra|first2=Sanjaya|last3=McGreal|first3=Rory|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2016|isbn=978-92-3-100158-1|pages=8, 17, 20–21}}</ref> In 2018, the 2nd World OER Congress in Ljubljana, Slovenia, was co-organized by UNESCO and the Government of Slovenia. The 500 experts and national delegates from 111 countries adopted the Ljubljana OER Action Plan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oercongress.org/|title=2nd World OER Congress – Ljubljana – 18–20 September 2017|website=www.oercongress.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-21}}</ref> It recommends 41 actions to mainstream open-licensed resources to achieve the 2030 [[Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goal]] 4 on "quality and lifelong education".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ljubljana_oer_action_plan_2017.pdf|title=Ljubljana OER Action Plan|website=2nd World OER Congress|access-date=21 February 2018}}</ref>

An historical antecedent to consider is the pedagogy of artist [[Joseph Beuys]] and the founding of the [[Free International University]] for Creativity and Interdisciplinary Research in 1973. After co-creating with his students, in 1967, the German Student Party, Beuys was dismissed from his teaching post in 1972 at the Staatliche Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. The institution did not approve of the fact that he permitted 50 students who had been rejected from admission to study with him. The Free University became increasingly involved in political and radical actions calling for a revitalization and restructuring of educational systems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Guggenheim Museum|title=Joseph Beuys|url=http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/artists/bios/423|publisher=Guggenheim Museum|access-date=10 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311025826/http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/artists/bios/423|archive-date=11 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Biro|first=Matthew|title=The Arts of Joseph Beuys|journal=The Journal of the International Institute|date=Winter 1995|volume= 2|issue= 2|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jii/4750978.0002.203?view=text;rgn=main|access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref>