Editing Our Posthuman Future (section)

== Human rights ==

Francis Fukuyama argues that informed discussion of human rights requires understanding of human purposes, which themselves rest on a concept of human nature and human dignity. Therefore, biotechnology targeting human nature will inevitably affect the discourse of values and politics. He provides several arguments to defend his human nature-based theory of rights: 
# Classic philosophical accounts by Socrates and Plato argue for the existence of human nature. Fukuyama believes that these classic accounts are too easily dismissed by "thoughtless contemporary commentators [who] sneer at Plato's "simplistic" psychology".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/118|title=Our posthuman future : consequences of the biotechnology revolution|last=Francis.|first=Fukuyama|date=2002|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=0374236437|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/118 118]|oclc=49502279}}</ref> 
# The Fallacy of "Naturalistic Fallacy". In response to the assertion that moral obligations cannot be derived from the observation of natural world ("naturalistic fallacy"), Fukuyama demonstrates that humans routinely use emotions to prioritize values. For example, the fear of violent death produces the basic right of life, which some will consider a value higher than the freedom of religion. 
# Inconsistencies in the views of libertarian legal theorists, John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin. For example, Fukuyama shows that John Rawls in "[[A Theory of Justice]]", appeals to apparent observations of human nature, such as genetically programmed social reciprocity.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/121|title=Our posthuman future : consequences of the biotechnology revolution|last=Francis.|first=Fukuyama|date=2002|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=0374236437|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/121 121]|oclc=49502279}}</ref> Ronald Dworkin, on the other hand, also appears to make assumptions about human nature: the existence of distinct natural human potential that can develop over time, efforts needed to cultivate this potential, and desirable choices of an individual regarding her potential.<ref name=":0" />
# Some decisions by the US Supreme Court "suggest priorities among the wide variety of human desires and purposes."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/123|title=Our posthuman future : consequences of the biotechnology revolution|last=Francis.|first=Fukuyama|date=2002|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=0374236437|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/123 123]|oclc=49502279}}</ref> For example, Fukuyama suggests that the US Supreme Court decision [[Planned Parenthood v. Casey|Casey vs. Planned Parenthood]] defends "moral autonomy as the most important human right."
# Values make collective action possible. "Human beings also find great satisfaction in the fact that values and norms are shared. Solipsistically held values defeat their own purpose and lead to a highly dysfunctional society in which people are unable to work together for common ends."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/125|title=Our posthuman future : consequences of the biotechnology revolution|last=Francis.|first=Fukuyama|date=2002|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=0374236437|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/125 125]|oclc=49502279}}</ref>
# Political history reveals the failure of political regimes which ignored the limits of human nature. For example, Fukuyama concludes that the ultimate failure of communism was caused by its "failure to respect the natural inclination to favor kin and private property."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/127|title=Our posthuman future : consequences of the biotechnology revolution|last=Francis.|first=Fukuyama|date=2002|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=0374236437|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourposthumanfutu00fuku/page/127 127]|oclc=49502279}}</ref>