Editing Peruvian Armed Forces (section)

=== 20th century ===
On 20 May 1929, the [[Peruvian Air Force]] was created as the Peruvian Aviation Corps when the aviation units of the army and navy merged. Following [[World War II]] and the [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]], the [[Joint Command of the Armed Forces of Peru]] was created in 1957 after observations were made that the branches needed a centralized organization to coordinate the activities of the branches.

When the government of [[Manuel Prado Ugarteche]] attempted to move political power to civilians, the military became upset with the new approach.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=1962-11-01 |title=Peru |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1962/11/peru/658157/ |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref> In addition, the [[1962 Peruvian general election]] saw the rise of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]], with the armed forces and traditional [[Aristocracy|aristocrats]] viewing their platform of [[land reform]] and the political inclusion of the [[indigenous peoples of Peru]] as a threat.<ref name=":3" /> After [[Fernando Belaúnde]], a presidential candidate in election, raised concerns of electoral fraud, the military would support Belaúnde and would commit the [[1962 Peruvian coup d'état]] against President Prado.<ref name=":3" />

The [[Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru]] led the nation following the [[1968 Peruvian coup d'état]], first headed by [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]], who instituted [[left-wing]] policies that included [[Nationalization|nationalizing]] the economy and enacting the [[Peruvian Agrarian Reform]]. During the Revolutionary Government, the nation's debt increased heavily as a result of excessive borrowing and the [[1970s energy crisis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brands |first=Hal |date=15 September 2010 |title=The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975 |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=471–490 |doi=10.1080/09592296.2010.508418 |s2cid=154119414}}</ref> Following the ''[[Tacnazo]]'' and subsequent overthrow of Velasco in 1975, [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez]] would lead the Revolutionary Government until 1980, with his military government participating in the political repression of leftists during [[Operation Condor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Operation Condor {{!}} international campaign {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Operation-Condor |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Plan Verde - Intelligence Appraisal.jpg|thumb|Excerpt of ''[[Plan Verde]]'' addendum that was created following the [[1990 Peruvian general election|election]] of [[Alberto Fujimori]]]]
During the government of [[Alan García]], the nation would begin to begin to experience [[hyperinflation]] and increased the beginning of the [[internal conflict in Peru]] with [[Shining Path]].<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last=Burt |first=Jo-Marie |date=September–October 1998 |title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru |journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=35–41 |doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657 |quote=the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.}}</ref> The armed force's perception that President Garcia's policies were detrimental to the nation resulted with the creation of ''[[Plan Verde]]'', a [[Clandestine operation|clandestine]] [[military operation]] that involved the [[genocide]] of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or [[censorship]] of media in the nation and the establishment of a [[neoliberal]] economy controlled by a [[military junta]] in Peru.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Rospigliosi |first=Fernando |title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos |year=1996 |location=Lima, Peru |pages=46–47}}</ref><ref name="CANbio">{{cite journal |last1=Gaussens |first1=Pierre |date=2020 |title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=180+ |doi=10.7202/1073797ar |s2cid=234586692 |quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":42"/><ref name="Alfredo">{{cite book |author=Alfredo Schulte-Bockholt |title=The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-1358-5 |pages=114–118 |chapter=Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru |quote=important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the Green Plan and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the Green Plan}}</ref> A coup initially included in the plan was opposed by [[Anthony C. E. Quainton]], the [[United States Ambassador to Peru]].<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal |last=Avilés |first=William |date=Spring 2009 |title=Despite Insurgency: Reducing Military Prerogatives in Colombia and Peru |journal=[[Latin American Politics and Society]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=57–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-2456.2009.00040.x |s2cid=154153310}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Rospigliosi |first=Fernando |title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos |year=1996 |location=Lima, Peru |pages=28–40}}</ref> Military planners also decided against the coup as they expected [[Mario Vargas Llosa]], a neoliberal candidate, to be elected in the [[1990 Peruvian general election]].<ref name=":102"/><ref name=":16" /> Vargas Llosa later reported that Ambassador Quainton, personally told him that allegedly leaked documents of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)]] purportedly being supportive of the candidacy of his opponent, [[Alberto Fujimori]], were authentic,<ref name="REND12">{{Cite book |last=Rendón |first=Silvio |title=La intervención de los Estados Unidos en el Perú |publisher=Editorial Sur |year=2013 |isbn=9786124574139 |pages=145–150}}</ref> with Rendón writing that the United States supported Fujimori because of his relationship with [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], who had previously been charged with spying on the Peruvian armed forces for the CIA.<ref name="Alfredo" /><ref name="REND12"/>

Fujimori was elected president of Peru in 1990, planning a coup with his military handlers during his next two years in office, with Fujimori becoming a [[figurehead]] leader<ref name=":8">{{bullet}}{{Cite news |last=Llosa |first=Mario Vargas |date=1994-03-27 |title=Ideas & Trends: In His Words; Unmasking the Killers in Peru Won't Bring Democracy Back to Life |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/27/weekinreview/ideas-trends-in-his-words-unmasking-the-killers-in-peru-wont.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |issn=0362-4331 |quote=The coup of April 5, 1992, carried out by high-ranking military felons who used the President of the Republic himself as their figurehead, had as one of its stated objectives a guaranteed free hand for the armed forces in the anti-subversion campaign, the same armed forces for whom the democratic system – a critical Congress, an independent judiciary, a free press – constituted an intolerable obstacle.}}

*{{cite web |date=August 2002 |title=Spymaster |url=https://www.journeyman.tv/film_documents/1368/transcript/ |access-date=29 March 2023 |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |language=en |quote=Lester: Though few questioned it , Montesinos was a novel choice. Peru's army had banished him for selling secrets to America's CIA, but he'd prospered as a defence lawyer – for accused drug traffickers. ...  Lester: Did Fujmori control Montesinos or did Montesinos control Fujimori? ... [[Michael Shifter|Shifter]]: As information comes out, it seems increasingly clear that Montesinos was the power in Peru.}}
*{{cite news |last1=Keller |first1=Paul |date=26 October 2000 |title=Fujimori in OAS talks PERU CRISIS UNCERTAINTY DEEPENS AFTER RETURN OF EX-SPY CHIEF |agency=[[Financial Times]] |quote=Mr Montesinos ... and his military faction, ... for the moment, has chosen to keep Mr Fujimori as its civilian figurehead}}
*{{cite web |date=2001 |title=THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE IN THE ANDES |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/Crisis%20Dem%20Gov%20Rpt%20on%20Amer%202.pdf |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] |quote=Alberto Fujimori,... as later events would seem to confirm—merely the figurehead of a regime governed for all practical purposes by the Intelligence Service and the leadership of the armed forces}}
*{{cite news |date=9 January 2001 |title=Questions And Answers: Mario Vargas Llosa |language=en |work=[[Newsweek]] |url=https://www.newsweek.com/questions-and-answers-mario-vargas-llosa-150783 |access-date=25 March 2023 |quote=Fujimori became a kind of, well, a figurehead}}</ref> and adopting many of the objectives of ''Plan Verde'' following the [[1992 Peruvian self-coup]].<ref name="Alfredo" /><ref name=":102"/><ref name="LAgolpe12">{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Maxwell A. |date=June 1998 |title=Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=228 |doi=10.1080/01436599814433 |quote=the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Green Plan was shown to President Fujimori after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration}}</ref><ref name=":63">{{Cite journal |date=12 July 1993 |title=El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |journal=Oiga |volume=647}}</ref> During the Fujimori administration, Montesinos would assume control of the government and placed weak officers as branch heads in order to maintain control, with every military branch's leader being personally filled by Montesinos.<ref name=":132">{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=John |last2=Zoido |first2=Pablo |date=Autumn 2004 |title=How to Subvert Democracy: Montesinos in Peru |journal=[[The Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=69–92 |doi=10.1257/0895330042632690 |quote=|hdl=10419/76612 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> During this time, the armed forces' [[Grupo Colina]] [[death squad]] would kill dozens during various massacres in Peru and the military would participate in the [[Cenepa War]] against [[Ecuador]] in 1995.