Editing Phonetic transcription (section)

== Types of notational systems ==
Most phonetic transcription is based on the assumption that linguistic sounds are segmentable into discrete units that can be represented by symbols. Many different types of transcription, or "notation", have been tried out: these may be divided into ''Alphabetic'' (which are based on the same principle as that which governs ordinary alphabetic writing, namely that of using one single simple symbol to represent each sound) and ''Analphabetic'' (notations which are ''not'' alphabetic) which represent each sound by a composite symbol made up of several signs put together.{{sfn|Abercrombie|1967|pp=111–112}}

=== Alphabetic ===
[[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|IPA]]
The [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) is the most widely used and well-known of present-day phonetic alphabets and has a long [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|history]]. It was created in the nineteenth century by European language teachers and linguists. It soon developed beyond its original purpose as a tool of foreign language pedagogy and is now also used extensively as a practical alphabet of phoneticians and linguists. It is found in many dictionaries, where it is used to indicate the pronunciation of words, but most American dictionaries for native English-speakers, e.g., ''[[American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]], [[Random House Dictionary of the English Language]], [[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'', avoid phonetic transcription and instead employ ''[[respelling]]'' systems based on the English alphabet, with diacritical marks over the vowels and stress marks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Sidney I. |title=Dictionaries: the art and craft of lexicography |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-78512-9 |edition=2nd |page=118}}</ref> (See [[Pronunciation respelling for English]] for a generic version.)

Another commonly encountered alphabetic tradition was created by American linguists for the transcription of [[Native American languages|Native American]] and European languages and is still commonly used {{citation needed|date=January 2020}} by linguists of [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Languages of India|Indic]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] (here known as the [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]]) and [[Caucasian languages]]. This is often labeled the [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist]] phonetic alphabet despite having been widely used for languages outside the Americas. The principal difference between these alphabets and the IPA is that the specially created characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of already existing typewriter characters with diacritics (e.g. many characters are borrowed from Eastern European orthographies) or [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]. Examples of this transcription may be seen in Pike's ''Phonemics''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pike |first=Kenneth |title=Phonemics |publisher=University of Michigan |year=1947}}</ref> and in many of the papers reprinted in Joos's ''Readings in Linguistics 1''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Readings in Linguistics 1 |publisher=University of Chicago |year=1957 |editor-last=Joos |editor-first=M.}}</ref> In the days before it was possible to create phonetic fonts for computer printers and computerized typesetting, this system allowed material to be typed on existing typewriters to create printable material.

There are also extended versions of the IPA, for example: [[Ext-IPA]], [[VoQS]], and [[Luciano Canepari]]'s ''<sup>can</sup>IPA''.

==== Aspects of alphabetic transcription ====
The [[International Phonetic Association]] recommends that a [[phonetics|phonetic]] transcription should be enclosed in [[bracket|square brackets]] "[&nbsp;]". A transcription that specifically denotes only [[Phoneme|phonemic]] contrasts may be enclosed in [[slash (punctuation)|slashes]] "/&nbsp;/" instead. If one is unsure, it is best to use brackets since by setting off a transcription with slashes, one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol phonemically contrasts for the language being transcribed.

For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a ''broad transcription''; in some cases, it may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a ''narrow transcription''. They are not binary choices but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets.

For example, in some dialects, the English word ''pretzel'' in a narrow transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpɹ̥ʷɛʔts.ɫ̩]}}, which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broad transcription is {{IPA|[ˈpɹ̥ɛts.ɫ̩]}}, which indicates only some of the features that are easier to hear. A yet broader transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛts.l]}} in which every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound but without going into any unnecessary detail. None of those transcriptions makes any claims about the phonemic status of the sounds. Instead, they represent certain ways in which it is possible to produce the sounds that make up the word.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abercrombie |first=David |title=Elements of General Phonetics |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-85224-028-1 |pages=128–129}}</ref>

There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe the word phonemically, but here, the differences are generally of not precision but analysis. For example, ''pretzel'' could be {{IPA|/ˈprɛts.l̩/}} or {{IPA|/ˈprɛts.əl/}}. The latter transcription suggests that there are two vowels in the word even if they cannot both be heard, but the former suggests that there is only one.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roach |first=Peter |title=English Phonetics and Phonology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-71740-3 |edition=4th |pages=100–101}}</ref>

Strictly speaking, it is not possible to have a distinction between "broad" and "narrow" within phonemic transcription, since the symbols chosen represent only sounds that have been shown to be distinctive. However, the symbols themselves may be more or less explicit about their phonetic realization.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Daniel |title=An Outline of English Phonetics |publisher=Heffer |year=1967 |edition=9th |pages=335–336}}</ref> A frequently cited example is the symbol chosen for the English consonant at the beginning of the words 'rue', 'rye', 'red': this is frequently transcribed as /r/, despite the symbol suggesting an association with the IPA symbol {{IPA|[r]}} which is used for a tongue-tip [[Trill consonant|trill]]. It is equally possible within a phonemic transcription to use the symbol {{IPA|/ɹ/}}, which in IPA usage refers to an [[alveolar approximant]]; this is the more common realization for English pronunciation in America and England. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the [[ASCII]] symbols of a typical keyboard, as in the [[SAMPA]] alphabet. For example, the English word ''church'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/tʃɝːtʃ/}}, a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as {{IPA|/crc/}}, which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be backed up by an explanation of their use and meaning, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as {{IPA|/crc/}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laver |first=John |title=Principles of Phonetics |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=551}}</ref>

Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in [[vertical bar|pipes]] ("| |"). This goes beyond phonology into [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] analysis. For example, the words ''pets'' and ''beds'' could be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɛʔts]}} and {{IPA|[b̥ɛd̥z̥]}} (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as {{IPA|/pɛts/}} and {{IPA|/bɛdz/}}. Because {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} are separate [[phoneme]]s in English, they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, a native English speaker would recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If the plural ending is thought to be essentially an ''s'', as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed {{IPA|&#124;pɛts&#124;}} and {{IPA|&#124;bɛds&#124;}}. If it is essentially a ''z'', these would be {{IPA|&#124;pɛtz&#124;}} and {{IPA|&#124;bɛdz&#124;}}.

A double slash ("{{IPA //| |}}") is sometimes used to mark a [[diaphoneme|diaphonemic]] transcription. Diaphonemic transcriptions accommodate for the variation between the phonemic systems of different varieties or [[diasystem]]s of a language. For example, if a speaker of variety A pronounces the [[lexical set]] {{sc2|BATH}} with an {{IPA|[ɑː]}} as in the lexical set {{sc2|PALM}}, whereas a speaker of variety B pronounces the lexical set {{sc2|BATH}} with an {{IPA|[æ]}} as in the lexical set {{sc2|TRAP}}, then a diaphonemic transcription that accommodates for variety A and variety B at the same time would transcribe the three lexical sets in three different ways, for instance {{sc2|PALM}} {{IPA //|pɑːm}}, {{sc2|TRAP}} {{IPA //|træp}}, and {{sc2|BATH}} {{IPA //|baθ}}, where the {{IPA //|a}} would mean ‘pronounced {{IPA|[ɑː]}} in variety A and {{IPA|[æ]}} in variety B.’ Other ways to mark diaphonemic transcriptions include [[exclamation mark]]s ("! !") or pipes ("| |").

To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word ''jet'' is not read as "yet". This is done with [[Bracket|angle brackets]] or ''chevrons'': {{angbr|jet}}. It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English [[transliteration]].

=== Iconic ===
[[File:VisibleSpeech-illustrations.jpg|thumb|Visible Speech]]
In ''iconic'' phonetic notation, the shapes of the phonetic characters are designed so that they visually represent the position of articulators in the vocal tract. This is unlike alphabetic notation, where the correspondence between character shape and articulator position is arbitrary. This notation is potentially more flexible than alphabetic notation in showing more shades of pronunciation (MacMahon 1996:838–841). An example of iconic phonetic notation is the [[Visible Speech]] system, created by Scottish phonetician [[Alexander Melville Bell]] (Ellis 1869:15).

=== Analphabetic ===
Another type of phonetic notation that is more precise than alphabetic notation is ''analphabetic'' phonetic notation. Instead of both the alphabetic and iconic notational types' general principle of using one symbol per sound, analphabetic notation uses long sequences of symbols to precisely describe the component features of an articulatory gesture (MacMahon 1996:842–844). This type of notation is reminiscent of the notation used in [[chemical formula]]s to denote the composition of chemical compounds. Although more descriptive than alphabetic notation, analphabetic notation is less practical for many purposes (e.g. for descriptive linguists doing fieldwork or for speech pathologists transcribing their impressions of speech disorders). As a result, this type of notation is uncommon.

Two examples of this type were developed by the Danish [[Otto Jespersen]] (1889) and American [[Kenneth Pike]] (1943). Pike's system, which is part of a larger goal of scientific description of phonetics, is particularly interesting in its challenge against the descriptive method of the phoneticians who created alphabetic systems like the IPA. An example of Pike's system can be demonstrated by the following. A [[syllable|syllabic]] [[voiced consonant|voiced]] [[alveolar nasal]] consonant ({{IPA|[n̩]}} in IPA) is notated as

: ''M''aIlDe''C''VoeIpvnnAP''p''a''a''t''d''tl''t''n''r''ansnsfS''p''v''a''v''d''tlv''t''n''r''anss''s''fT''p''g''a''g''d''tlwv''t''itv''r''ansn''s''f''S''rp''F''Ss

In Pike's notation there are 5 main components (which are indicated using the example above):

# ''M'' – manner of production (i.e., ''M''aIlDe)
# ''C'' – manner of controlling (i.e., ''C''VoeIpvnn)
# description of stricture (i.e., AP''p''a''a''t''d''tl''t''n''r''ansnsfS''p''v''a''v''d''tlv''t''n''r''anss''s''fT''p''g''a''g''d''tlwv''t''itv''r''ansn''s''f)
# ''S'' – segment type (i.e., ''S''rp)
# ''F'' – phonetic function (i.e., ''F''Ss)

The components of the notational hierarchy of this consonant are explained below:

{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 86%"
| valign="top" |
: ''M'' = productive mechanism
:: a = air-stream mechanism
::: I = initiator
:::: l = for lung air
::: D = direction of the air stream
:::: e = egressive
: ''C'' = controlling mechanism
:: V = valvate stricture
::: o = oral stricture
::: e = subvalvate esophageal stricture
:: I = degree of air-stream interruption
::: p = partial (continuants)
:::: v = nonfrictional
:::: n = nasal
::::: n = resonant nasal
| valign="top" |
: <u>(Rank of stricture)</u>
: A = acme
: P = primary
:: <u>(Features of stricture)</u>
:: ''p'' = point of articulation
::: a = alveolar
:: ''a'' = articulator
::: t = tongue tip
:: ''d'' = degree of articulation
::: t = in time
:::: l = long
:: ''t'' = type of articulation
::: n = normal
:: ''r'' = relative strength
::: a = of articulating movement
:::: n = normal
::: s = of acoustic impression
:::: n = normal
:: ''s'' = shape of articulator
::: f = flat
: <u>(Rank of stricture)</u>
: S = secondary
:: <u>(Features of stricture)</u>
:: ''p'' = point of articulation
::: v = velic
:: ''a'' = articulator
::: v = velic
::
:: <u>(Features of stricture)</u>
:: ''p'' = point of articulation
::: g = glottal
:: ''a'' = articulator
::: g = vocal folds
:: ''d'' = degree of articulation
::: t = in time
:::: l = long
::: w = wide
::: v = with cavity friction
:: ''t'' = type of articulation
::: i = iterative
:::: t = trill
:::: v = vibratory trill
:: ''r'' = relative strength
::: a = of articulating movement
:::: n = normal
::: s = of acoustic impression
:::: n = normal
:: ''s'' = shape of articulator
::: f = flat
| valign="top" |
: ''S'' = segmental type
:: r = real
:: p = perceptual
: ''F'' = function phonetically
:: S = of the segment in the syllable
::: s = syllabic contoid
|}