Editing Platt Amendment (section)

==Aftermath==
Following acceptance of the amendment, the United States ratified a tariff that gave Cuban sugar preference in the U.S. market and protection to select U.S. products in the Cuban market.<ref name="keen" /> The huge American investment into sugar led to land being concentrated into the hands of the largest sugar mills, however, with estimates that 20% of all Cuban land was owned by these mills.<ref name="keen" /> This led to further impoverishment of the rural masses. Workers on the mill were in constant fear of eviction, with cheap imported labor from other parts of the Caribbean keeping wages very low and the prices for independent cane pushed down to a minimum. In addition, the mills monopolized the railroads and ran them for private benefit. The lack of consumer purchasing power and the limited market available for manufactured goods meant that little industrialization would occur in the decade after the 1903 Treaty of Relations. Overall, over $200 million was spent by American companies on Cuban sugar between 1903 and 1913.<ref name="keen" />

[[Tomás Estrada Palma]], who had once favored outright annexation of Cuba by the United States, became president of Cuba on May 20, 1902. He was re-elected in 1905 despite accusations of fraud from his liberal opponents, but was forced to resign along with the rest of the executive when opposition against his rule turned violent.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom|last=Thomas|first=Hugh|publisher=Harper and Hugh|year=1971|location=New York|pages=472}}</ref> The U.S. invoked the Platt Amendment to begin the [[Second Occupation of Cuba]] and install a Provisional Government.

Political instability and frequent American occupation through the early 1900s meant that legitimate constitutional rule was increasingly difficult to come about. Though Cuban citizens enjoyed an improved standard of living in this period, Article 40 of the 1901 Cuban Constitution and Article III of the Platt Amendment meant that constitutional rights could be suspended under emergency provisions.<ref name=":1" /> Therefore, the Platt Amendment contributed to an erosion of the individual rights of the Cuban people, and it was not long before the Cuban public were calling for a replacement to the 1901 Constitution.<ref name=":1" />

The Platt Amendment was a major blow to hopes of social advancement for Afro-Cubans, who hoped that their participation in the [[Spanish–American War|Spanish-American War]] would mean equality with the white planters and commercial elites of Cuba. Nearly 40% of the Cuban fighting force against Spain were made up of people of color, and Afro-Cubans had spent generations fighting for their country's independence.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Lisa|date=1994|title=Back to the Future: African-Americans and Cuba in the Time(s) of Race|journal=Contributions in Black Studies|volume=12|issue=3|pages=9–32}}</ref> As well as becoming disenfranchised through voting acts, Afro-Cubans were also blocked from many state institutions as they now required educational or property qualifications to be gained.<ref name=":3" /> 

Tensions between Afro-Cubans and U.S. military officials were rife, with hostile language and sometimes gunfire being exchanged between the two groups.<ref name=":3" /> Frustrated middle class blacks would launch the [[Partido Independiente de Color|Independent Party of Colour]] (PIC) in 1908, but this was barred by the Cuban Congress soon along with all other parties of colour, accused of inciting race war. The PIC's call for limited armed protests would eventually spark the [[Negro Rebellion]] of 1912 which killed between 3,000 and 6,000. The rebellion was defeated by the Cuban army and led to the PIC dissolving afterwards.<ref name=":3" /> The U.S. sent 1,292 Marines to protect the American-owned companies, as well as copper mines, railroads, and trains. The Marines had only one skirmish with the rebels with no casualties on either side.<ref name=Clark>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRmj4wHv-kIC&pg=PA98 |title=Battle History of the United States Marine Corps, 1775–1945 |isbn=978-0-7864-5621-5 |last=Clark |first=George B. |date=2010 |publisher=McFarland }}</ref>
[[File:Guantanamo bay satellite image.jpg|thumb|[[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base|Guantanamo Bay]] from satellite images]]
Women activists were also disappointed by the result of the Platt Amendment's conditions. As with Afro-Cubans, women played important roles in the Cuban independence movement and were characterised as 'mambisas', or courageous warrior mothers symbolizing the struggle for social justice.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Davies|first=Catherine|date=1996|title=National Feminism in Cuba: The Elaboration of a Counter-Discourse 1900-1935|journal=The Modern Language Review|volume=91|issue=1|pages=107–123|doi=10.2307/3734000|jstor=3734000}}</ref> However, they were also denied voting rights and female suffrage would not be obtained until 1940.<ref name=":4" /> Any attempts by women to discus equality of the sexes with the Cuban government saw them labeled as nationalists or flat out ignored.<ref name=":4" />

Most of the Platt Amendment provisions were repealed in 1934 when the [[Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1934)|Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1934]] between the United States and Cuba was negotiated as a part of U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt's "[[Good Neighbor policy]]" toward Latin America.<ref name=":0" /> [[José Manuel Cortina]] and other members of the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1940 eliminated the Platt Amendment from the [[1940 Constitution of Cuba|new Cuban constitution]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Wachs|first=Jonathan|date=1996|title=Reviving the 1940 Cuban Constitution: Arguments for Social and Economic Rights in a Post-Castro Government.|journal=American University International Law Review|volume=10|issue=1|pages=525–569}}</ref> 

The long-term lease of [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base]] continues. The Cuban government since 1959 has strongly denounced the treaty as a violation of Article 52 of the 1969 [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXIII-1&chapter=23&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en|title=Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties|last=Nations|first=United|date=2020|website=United Nations Treaty Collection}}</ref> which declares a treaty void if procured by the threat or use of force. However, Article 4 of the Vienna Convention states that its provisions shall not be applied retroactively.

Historian Louis A. Perez Jr. has argued that the Platt Amendment resulted in the conditions it had hoped to avoid, including Cuban volatility.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902-1934|last=Perez|first=Louis|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|year=1986|location=Pittsburgh}}</ref>