Editing Polycrates (section)

== Reign ==
=== Establishment of his power ===
In the mid-sixth century BCE, there was apparently a period of civil strife in Samos. This conflict is mentioned by Herodotus in the context of Polycrates' rise to power.<ref name="H339">Herodotus ''Histories'' 3.39</ref> [[John Boardman (art historian)|John Boardman]] and Graham Shipley have cited archaeological evidence for serious disruption in this period. Around 550 BC, they say, funerary stele were shattered and aristocratic burials in the West Cemetery at Samos cease, while the first great [[Heraion of Samos|temple of Hera]], known as the Rhoikos temple, was destroyed - only a decade after it was built.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1017/S0003581500083128| title=Chian and Early Ionic architecture| journal=The Antiquaries Journal| volume=39| issue=3–4| pages=170–218| year=1959| last1=Boardman| first1=John| s2cid=164059218}}</ref><ref>Shipley (1987) 79</ref> However, more recent archaeological research has challenged this picture, showing that the destruction of the Rhoikos temple was a structural failure resulting from subsidence under the foundations, and that the West Cemetery fell out of use gradually over the course of the second half of the sixth century.<ref>Carty (2005) 92-93 & 102-105</ref> Aideen Carty argues that shifts in the deposition of [[Laconian vase painting|Laconian pottery]] on Samos suggest the development of pro- and anti-Spartan factions on the island, one faction associated with the Heraion and the other with the Artemision of Samos.<ref>Carty (2005) 94-102</ref>

Herodotus reports that Polycrates took power with his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson and a force of only fifteen men.<ref>Herodotus ''Histories'' 3.39 & 3.120.</ref> This coup seems to have taken place in 540 BC or slightly earlier.<ref>Carty (2015) 75-89. [[Eusebius]] ''Chronicon'' puts this event in 533 BC, but this is generally agreed to be too late: White (1954), Cadoux (1956). Carty moves it back to c. 550 BC.</ref> Initially, Polycrates ruled along with his brothers, but soon had Pantagnotus killed and then exiled Syloson to take full control for himself.<ref name="H339"/> According to a Roman-period author, [[Polyaenus]], there was a religious procession in armour out of the city of Samos to the Heraion, led by Pantagnotus and Syloson. When the procession was over, the Samians removed their armour to sacrifice, and Pantagnotus and Syloson seized the chance to murder their enemies. At the same time, Polycrates seized Astypalaea, the citadel of the city of Samos. The tyrant of [[Naxos]], [[Lygdamis of Naxos|Lygdamis]], invaded with a force to support Polycrates.<ref>[http://www.attalus.org/translate/polyaenus1A.html#23.1 Polyaenus 1.23].</ref> However, it is uncertain whether Polyaenus' account describes Polycrates' initial seizure of power or the conflict with his brothers which left him as sole ruler.<ref>Carty (2005)117-20</ref>

===Thalassocracy===
[[File:ISLANDS off IONIA, Samos. Circa 530-528 BC.jpg|thumb|Coinage of Samos at the time of Polycrates. Circa 530-528 BC.]]
[[File:ISLANDS off IONIA, Samos. Circa 526-522 BC.jpg|thumb|Coinage of Samos at the time of Polycrates. Forepart of winged boar with lion scalp facing in dotted square within incuse square. Circa 526-522 BC.]]
Polycrates recruited an army of 1,000 [[archery|archers]] and assembled a navy of 100 [[Penteconter (ship)|penteconters]], which became the most powerful navy in the Greek world –– [[Herodotus]] says that Polycrates was the first Greek ruler to understand the importance of sea power and Thucydides includes him in his list of [[thalassocracy|thalassocracies]] in the Aegean.<ref>Herodotus 3.122; [[Thucydides]] 1.13.6</ref> With these forces he implemented a plan to bring all the Greek islands and cities of [[Ionia]] under his rule. Polycrates' rise to power took place in the period when the [[Achaemenid empire]] under [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]] conquered western Anatolia. In theory, the Aegean islanders had accepted Persian overlordship after Cyrus conquered [[Lydia]] in 546 BC, but in practice the political situation in the Aegean was complicated. This confusion may have contributed to Polycrates' success in projecting his power.<ref name="C131">Carty (2005), 131-5</ref>

Few specifics of Polycrates' naval activities and conquests are preserved. Herodotus refers to an attack on [[Miletus]], in which the [[Lesbos|Lesbians]] came to the aid of Miletos and Polycrates won a great naval victory, capturing and enslaving large numbers of Lesbian sailors.<ref>Herodotus 3.39</ref> The Milesians had become key Persian allies and this victory is probably identical with a victory over Persian navy mentioned in Thucydides and some other historians.<ref>Thucydides 1.13.6; Carty (2005), 133</ref> Thucydides emphasises his conquest of Delos, the key religious centre of the Aegean.<ref name="Thucydides 1.13, 3.104">Thucydides 1.13, 3.104</ref> Polycrates formed an alliance with King [[Amasis II|Amasis]] of [[Egypt]] and A. Carty suggests that Polycrates assisted Amasis in the conquest of Cyprus.<ref name="C131"/> In general, though, the ancient sources stress not specific campaigns, but wide-ranging raiding, which may have been more like [[piracy]] than campaigns of conquest. Herodotus says that he "raided everyone without any discrimination. For he said that a friend would be more appreciative if what was taken from him was returned than if it had not first been snatched away."<ref>Herodotus 3.39, [[Diodorus Siculus]], ''Bibliotheke'' 10.16.1; P. de Souza, ''Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World'' (1999), 25</ref> Aideen Carty argues that the focus of this raiding was the acquisition of slaves whom he exported to Egypt to serve as mercenaries in Amasis' army.<ref>Carty (2005) 144-8</ref>

The nature of Polycrates' navy is debated. Some scholars have conceived of his penteconters as powerful warships in a state navy which owned, crewed and operated them in accordance with Polycrates' command.<ref>L. Casson ''Ships and Seafaring in Ancient Times'' (1994) 51-3; L. Scott "Were there Polis Navies in Archaic Greece?" in G. J. Oliver et al., ''The Sea in Antiquity'' (2000) 108</ref> Other scholars consider this picture anachronistic; they present the penteconters as trading and raiding vessels that were owned privately by individual Samian aristocrats, who were essentially autonomous pirates only loosely constrained by Polycrates and the Samian state.<ref>de Souza, (1999), 284; Carty (2015) 139-41.</ref> In addition to these ships, Polycrates is said to have commissioned a new type of ship called the Samaina, a decked ship with two banks of oars, apparently a merchant galley designed for the rapid transport of goods or troops.<ref>[[Photius]] ''Lexicon'' sv. Σαμίων ὁ δῆμός; Plutarch, ''Pericles'' 26; Wallinga (1993) 95-7; De Souza (1998) 283; Carty (2005) 141-4</ref>

=== Rebellion and Spartan attack ===
[[File:Samos, Temple of Hera, Statue of a warrior 530 BCE.jpg|thumb|Samos, Temple of Hera, Statue of a warrior, 530 BC]]
[[File:Polycrates leaving his daughter to encounter Oroetus.jpg|thumb|Polycrates leaving his daughter to encounter Oroetus.]]
Herodotus states that Polycrates later established a fleet of 40 [[trireme]]s, probably becoming the first Greek state with a fleet of such ships, which he crewed with sailors he considered to be politically dangerous, and sent to the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] king [[Cambyses II|Cambyses]]  with instructions to put the crews to death.<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'' 3.39</ref> Modern scholars consider this story unlikely.<ref>Carty (2005) 136</ref> The dispatch of these ships is usually connected with the [[Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)|Persian invasion of Egypt]] in 525 BC. Herman Wallinga argues that the ships were built at Amasis' expense, crewed by Polycrates, and sent by him to fight against the Persians.<ref>H. T. Wallinga, ''Ships and Sea-Power before the Great Persian War'' (1993), 88 and 117.</ref> By contrast, [[Hans Van Wees]] thinks that this fleet was a gift from the Persians, crewed by Polycrates, in order to assist the Persians ''against'' Amasis.<ref>H. Van Wees, ''Greek Warfare'' (2004), 306 n. 19</ref>

The naval detachment turned back to attack Polycrates. They defeated him at sea but could not take the island. The rebels then sailed to mainland [[Greece]] and allied with [[Sparta]] and [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]]. Sparta and Corinth invaded the island of Samos in support of the Samian rebels around 520 BC. After 40 days they withdrew their unsuccessful siege.<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book |last1=Hart |first1=John |title=Herodotus and Greek History (Routledge Revivals) |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317678373 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPVQAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |language=en}}</ref>

"It's said that Polycrates was one of the earliest known coin counterfeiters. Herodotus wrote that Polycrates bought off the besieging Spartans in 525/4 B.C. with counterfeit Samian coins. Some of these fakes still exist and are described in Spink's coin catalogue."<ref>The Counterfeit Coin Storey by Ken Peters ISBN 0-9543487-0-2</ref>

===Persian invasion and death===
Herodotus also tells the story of Polycrates' death.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780199997329/student/archives/herodotus_polycrates/|title=Herodotus (Polycrates)|website=global.oup.com|access-date=2018-04-14|archive-date=2018-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730110548/https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780199997329/student/archives/herodotus_polycrates/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Near the end of the reign of Cambyses (around 522 BC), the [[satrap]] of [[Sardis]], [[Oroetes]], planned to kill Polycrates, either because he had been unable to add Samos to Persia's territory, or because Polycrates had snubbed a Persian ambassador. Prior to this, according to Diodorus Siculus, some Lydians fleeing Oroestes' domineering rule sought sanctuary on Samos.  Polycrates at first received them, but then put them to the sword and confiscated the possessions that they had brought (Diodorus Siculus, Library 10.16.4). Polycrates was invited to [[Magnesia on the Maeander|Magnesia]], where Oroetes lived. Oroetes claimed that he wanted a promise of refuge on Samos in the event that Cambyses turned on him and that in return he would give Polycrates a large amount of money. Polycrates was convinced and went to Magnesia, where he was assassinated. Herodotus is vague about the manner of Polycrates' death, saying only that it was an undignified end for a glorious ruler; he may have been [[impalement|impaled]] and his dead body was [[crucifixion|crucified]].<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'' 3.125.3</ref> Herodotus claims that Polycrates' daughter warned him not to go to Magnesia, reporting a prophetic dream that she had had of him hanging in the air, being washed by [[Zeus]] and anointed by the sun god [[Helios]]. His death fulfilled this prophecy as when it rained he was 'washed by Zeus' and when the sun shone he was 'anointed by Helios', as the moisture was sweated from him.<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'' 3.126</ref>

After the murder of Polycrates by Oroetes, Samos was ruled by [[Maeandrius]].<ref name="Routledge"/> After some time, [[Syloson]], the brother of Polycrates, was installed as governor of [[Samos]] by [[Achaemenid]] ruler [[Darius I]], receiving the help of general [[Otanes]] to expel the impostor who had taken control after Oroetes.<ref>Herodotus, iii.142-144.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dandamaev|first1=M. A.|author-link1=Muhammad Dandamayev|title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire|date=1989|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004091726|page=148|quote=The island was plundered and incorporated into the Achaemenid empire. Syloson was appointed as its vassal ruler.}}</ref>