Editing Procedural knowledge (section)

== Development ==
The development of procedural knowledge is always entangled with the development of [[declarative knowledge]]. Researchers suggested that initial problem solving involves explicitly referring to examples and participants start with pure example-based processing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=John R.|last2=Fincham|first2=Jon M.|date=1994|title=Acquisition of procedural skills from examples.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1322|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=20|issue=6|pages=1322–1340|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1322|pmid=7983466 |issn=1939-1285|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=John R.|last2=Fincham|first2=Jon M.|last3=Douglass|first3=Scott|date=1997|title=The role of examples and rules in the acquisition of a cognitive skill.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.23.4.932|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=23|issue=4|pages=932–945|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.23.4.932|pmid=9231437 |issn=1939-1285|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The examples illustrate the solution of a similar problem and the problem solver analogically maps the solution of the example onto a solution for the current problem. People make extensive reference to examples even when they are initially taught the rules and principles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ross|first1=Brian H.|last2=Kennedy|first2=Patrick T.|date=1990|title=Generalizing from the use of earlier examples in problem solving.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.1.42|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=16|issue=1|pages=42–55|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.16.1.42|issn=1939-1285|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It is believed that when people acquire cognitive skills, first an example is encoded as a declarative structure. When participants are tested on their first problems, they have two possible ways to respond. If the example matches the problem they learned, they can simply retrieve the answer. However, if it does not match, they must analogically extend the example.<ref name=":2" /> With repeated practice, general rules develop and the specific example is no longer accessed. In this way, knowledge transitions from a declarative form (encoding of examples) to a procedural form (production rules), which is called the adaptive control of thought—rational (ACT-R) theory.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=John R.|author-link=John Robert Anderson (psychologist)|title=Rules of the Mind|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.|year=1993|isbn=9780805812008}}</ref>

However, on certain occasions, procedural and declarative knowledge can be acquired independently. Research with amnesiac patients found that they can learn motor skills without the ability to recollect the episodes in which they learned them. The research also found that the patients learned and retained the ability to read mirror-reversed words efficiently, yet were severely impaired in recognizing those words. This research gives evidence about the neurological differences between procedural and declarative knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corkin|first=Suzanne|date=1968|title=Acquisition of motor skill after bilateral medial temporal-lobe excision|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(68)90024-9|journal=Neuropsychologia|volume=6|issue=3|pages=255–265|doi=10.1016/0028-3932(68)90024-9|issn=0028-3932|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=N.|last2=Squire|first2=L.|date=1980-10-10|title=Preserved learning and retention of pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: dissociation of knowing how and knowing that|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7414331|journal=Science|volume=210|issue=4466|pages=207–210|doi=10.1126/science.7414331|pmid=7414331 |bibcode=1980Sci...210..207C |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Researchers also found that some normal subjects, like amnesiac patients, showed substantial procedural learning in the absence of explicit declarative knowledge. Even though declarative knowledge may influence performance on a procedural task, procedural and declarative knowledge may be acquired separately and one does not need to have knowledge of one type in order to build the other type. The influence of declarative knowledge may be due to the facilitation of a process of pathway activation that is outside of conscious awareness.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Willingham|first1=Daniel B.|last2=Nissen|first2=Mary J.|last3=Bullemer|first3=Peter|date=1989|title=On the development of procedural knowledge.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.15.6.1047|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=15|issue=6|pages=1047–1060|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.15.6.1047|pmid=2530305 |issn=1939-1285|url-access=subscription}}</ref> If the prime is highly predictive of the target, the amount of facilitation is increased because of an active, conscious, attentional effect that is superimposed on the pathway activation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Posner|first1=Micheal I|title=Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals|last2=Snyder|first2=Charles R|pages=669–682}}</ref> Therefore, if and when subjects develop explicit declarative knowledge of procedure, they can use this knowledge to form attentional expectancies regarding the next item in this procedure.<ref name=":3" />