Editing Profanity (section)

== Subjects ==
Profanities have literal meanings, but they are invoked to indicate a state of mind, making them dependent almost entirely on [[connotation]] and emotional associations with the word, as opposed to literal [[denotation]].{{Sfn|Jay|Janschewitz|2008|p=268}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=13}} The connotative function of profanity allows the denotative meaning to shift more easily,{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=252}} causing the word to shift until its meaning is unrelated to its origin or to lose meaning and impact altogether.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=412}}

Literal meanings in modern profanity typically relate to religion, sex, or the human body, which creates a dichotomy between the use of [[highbrow]] religious swears and lowbrow anatomical swears.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=5–6}} Languages and cultures place different emphasis on the subjects of profanity. Anatomical profanity is common in Polish, for example, while swearing in Dutch is more commonly in reference to disease.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=44}} Words for excrement and for the buttocks have profane variants across most cultures.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=40}} Though religious swears were historically more severe, modern society across much of the world has come to see sexual and anatomical swears to be more vulgar.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}}{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xvii, 197}} Common profane phrases sometimes incorporate more than one category of profanity for increased effect. The Spanish phrase {{lang|es|me cago en Dios y en la Puta Virgen}} ({{Translation|I shit on God and on the prostitute Virgin}}) invokes scatological, religious, and sexual profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=36–37}} Other swear words do not refer to any subject, such as the English word ''[[bloody]]'' when used in its profane sense.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=36}}

Not all taboo words are used in swearing, with many only being used in a literal sense.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=7}} Clinical or academic terminology for bodily functions and sexual activity are distinct from profanity. This includes words such as ''excrement'' and ''copulate'' in English, which are not typically invoked as swears.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=7}} Academics who study profanity disagree on whether literal use of a vulgar word can constitute a swear word.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=12}} Conversely, words with greater connotative senses are not always used profanely. ''Bastard'' and ''son of a bitch'' are more readily used as general terms of abuse in English compared to ''terrorist'' and ''rapist'', despite the latter two being terms being associated with strongly immoral behavior.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=245}}

Some profane phrases are used metaphorically in a way that still retains elements of the original meaning, such as the English phrases ''all hell broke loose'' or ''[[shit happens]]'', which carry the negative associations of ''[[hell]]'' and ''[[shit]]'' as undesirable places and things.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=14–17}} Others are nonsensical when interpreted literally, like ''take a flying fuck'' in English as well as {{lang|fr|putain de merde}} (''whore of shit'') in French and {{lang|it|porca Madonna}} (''the sow of Madonna'') in Italian.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvii–xviii}}

=== Religion ===
[[File:Woman exclaiming "Oh My God!" before a bike crash.webm|thumb|A woman exclaiming "Oh My God!" before a [[dirtbike]] crash|thumbtime=0]]
[[File:Tabarnak graffiti.jpg|thumb|Graffiti on a mailbox in Quebec reading {{lang|fr|Pas de publicité tabarnak}}, meaning "no [[advertising mail]]" and using the {{lang|fr|sacre}} "{{lang|fr|tabarnak}}" ([[tabernacle]])]]
A distinction is sometimes made between religious profanity, which is casual, versus blasphemy, which is intentionally leveled against a religious concept.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xvii, 31}} It was commonly believed among early civilizations that speaking about certain things can invoke them or bring about curses.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xvi}} Many cultures have taboos about speaking the names of evil creatures such as [[Satan]] because of these historical fears.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=6}}

Religions commonly develop derogatory words for those who are not among their members. Medieval Christianity developed terms like ''heathen'' and ''[[infidel]]'' to describe outsiders.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=223}} [[Secularization]] in the [[Western world]] has seen exclamations such as ''God!'' divorced from their religious connotations.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=39–40}} Religious profanity is not inherent to all languages, being absent from Japanese, [[indigenous languages of the Americas]], and most [[Polynesian languages]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xxi}}

European languages historically used the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] as a focal point for profane interjections. Phrases meaning "death of God" were used in languages like English ('''Sdeath''), French ({{lang|fr|Mort de Dieu}}), and Swedish ({{lang|sv|Guds död}}){{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}} Christian profanity encompasses both appeals to the divine, such as God or heaven, and to the diabolic, such as the Devil or hell. While the impact of religious swearing has declined in the Christian world, diabolic swearing remains profane in Germany and the [[Nordic countries]]. Islamic profanity lacks a diabolic element, referring only to divine concepts like Muhammad or holy places.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=37}}

Words related to Catholicism, known as {{lang|fr|sacres}}, are used in [[Quebec French profanity]], and are considered to be stronger than other profane words in French. Examples of {{lang|fr|sacres}} considered profane in Quebec are {{lang|fr|tabarnak}} ([[tabernacle]]), {{lang|fr|hostie}} ([[Sacramental bread|host]]), and {{lang|fr|sacrament}} ([[sacrament]]). When used as profanities, {{lang|fr|sacres}} are often interchangeable.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nosowitz |first=Dan |date=26 May 2016 |title=The Delightful Perversity of Québec's Catholic Swears |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-delightful-perversity-of-quebecs-catholic-swears |access-date=19 September 2024 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Book of Leviticus]] indicates that blasphemous language warrants death, while the [[Gospel of Matthew]] implies condemnation of all swearing, though only the [[Quakers]] have imposed such a ban.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=21–22}} [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], and [[Brahmanism]] forbid mention of God's name entirely.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=xxi, 201}} In some countries, profanity words often have [[pagan]] roots that after Christian influence were turned from names of deities and spirits to profanity and used as such, like {{lang|fi|[[perkele]]}} in Finnish, which was believed to be an original name of the thunder god [[Ukko]], the chief god of the [[Finnish paganism|Finnish pagan]] pantheon.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siikala |first=Anna-Leena |title=Itämerensuomalaisten mytologia |publisher=SKS |year=2013 |location=Helsinki}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Salo |first=Unto |title=Agricola's Ukko in the light of archeology. A chronological and interpretative study of ancient Finnish religion: Old Norse and Finnish religions and cultic place-names. |year=1990 |isbn=951-649-695-4 |location=Turku}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Miten suomalaiset kiroilivat ennen kristinuskoa? |url=http://www.kielikello.fi/index.php?mid=2&pid=11&aid=784 |access-date=25 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Suomen kielen etymologinen sanakirja. 3. |publisher=Suomalais-ugrilainen seura |year=1976 |isbn=951-9019-16-2 |location=Helsinki}}</ref>

=== Anatomy and sexuality ===
[[File:En-US-get fucked.wav|thumb|The phrase "get fucked" spoken by an American]]
Profanity related to sexual activity, including insults related to genitals, exists across cultures.{{Sfn|Van Lancker|Cummings|1999|p=84}} The specific aspects invoked are sensitive to a given culture, with differences in how much they emphasize ideas like incest or adultery.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=xix}} Certain types of sex acts, such as oral sex, anal sex, or masturbation, may receive particular attention.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=41}} Verbs describing sexual activity are frequently profane, like ''fuck'' in English, {{lang|fr|foutre}} in French, {{lang|it|fottere}} in Italian, {{lang|es|jodido}} in Spanish, and {{lang|ru| ебать}} (''yebatˈ'') in Russian.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=39}} Words describing a person as one who masturbates are often used as terms of abuse, such as the English use of ''jerk-off'' and ''wanker''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=310}}{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=41}} Terms for sexually promiscuous women can be used as profanity, such English terms like ''hussy'' and ''[[slut]]''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=363}} Reference to prostitution brings its own set of profanities. Many profane words exist to refer to a prostitute, such as ''whore'' in English, {{lang|fr|putain}} in French, {{lang|it|puttana}} in Italian, {{lang|pl|kurwa}} in Polish, {{lang|ru| блять}} (''blyat''') in Russian, and {{lang|es|puta}} in Spanish.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=36, 43}} Some languages, including German and Swedish, do not see significant use of sexual terms as profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=39}}

Profanities for the penis and vulva are often used as interjections. Penile interjections are often used in Italian ({{lang|it|cazzo}}), Russian ({{lang|ru|хуй}}, ''khuy''), and Spanish ({{lang|es|carajo}}). Vulvar interjections are often used in Dutch ({{lang|nl|kut}}), Hungarian ({{lang|hu|pisca}}), Russian ({{lang|ru|пизда}}, ''pizda''), Spanish ({{lang|es|coño}}), and Swedish ({{lang|sv|fitta}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=38}} Such terms, especially those relating to the vulva, may also be used as terms of abuse.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|pp=38–39}} Profanities related to testicles are less common and their function varies across languages. They may be used as interjections, such as in English (''balls'' or ''bollocks''), Italian ({{lang|it|coglione}}), and Spanish ({{lang|es|cojones}}). Danish uses testicles as a term of abuse with {{lang|da|klotzaak}}.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=39}}

Words for the buttocks are used as a term of disapproval in many languages, including English (''ass'' or ''arse''), French ({{lang|fr|cul}}), Polish ({{lang|pl|dupa}}), Russian ({{lang|ru|жопа}}, ''zhopa''), and Spanish ({{lang|es|culo}}). Similar words for the anus appear in languages like Danish ({{lang|da|røvhul}}), English (''asshole'' or ''arsehole''), German ({{lang|de|Arschloch}}), Icelandic ({{lang|is|rassgat}}), Norwegian ({{lang|no|rasshøl}}), and Polish ({{lang|pl|dupek}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=38}} Excrement and related concepts are commonly invoked in profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=37}} European examples include ''shit'' in English, {{lang|fr|merde}} in French, {{lang|de|Scheiße}} in German, and {{lang|it|stronzo}} in Italian.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=432}} An example in an East Asian language would be {{lang|ja|クソ}} (''kuso'') in Japanese.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

=== Other subjects ===
Illness has historically been used to swear by wishing a plague on others.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} The names of various diseases are used as profane words in some languages; ''Pokkers'' ({{translation|pox}}) appears in both Danish and Norwegian as an exclamation and an intensifier.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=43}} Death is another common theme in Asian languages such as [[Cantonese]].{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}} Terminology of [[mental illness]] has become more prominent as profanity in the Western world, with terms such as ''[[idiot]]'' and ''[[Retard (pejorative)|retard]]'' challenging one's mental competency.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=40}}

Profane phrases directed at the listener's mother exist across numerous major languages, though it is absent from Germanic languages with the exception of English. These phrases often include terms of abuse that implicate the subject's mother, such as ''son of a bitch'' in English or {{lang|zh-Latn|wáng bā dàn}} ({{Translation|child of a cuckolded man}}) in Mandarin.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=41}} Russian profanity places heavy emphasis on the sexual conduct of the listener's female relatives, either by describing sexual activity involving them or suggesting that the listener engage in activities with them.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=2}} [[Aboriginal Australian]] languages sometimes invoke one's deceased ancestors in profanity.{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}}

The names of political ideologies are sometimes invoked as swear words by their opponents. ''[[Fascist]]'' is [[Fascist (insult)|commonly used]] as an epithet in the modern era, replacing historical use of ''[[Radical politics|radical]]''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=94}} Far-left groups have historically used words like ''[[capitalist]]'' and ''[[imperialist]]'' as terms of abuse, while anti-communist speakers use ''[[communist]]'' in [[Red-baiting|the same manner]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=350}} The use of political terms in a profane sense often leads to the term becoming less impactful or losing relevance as a political descriptor entirely.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=350–351}}

Words for animals can be used as terms of abuse despite not being inherently profane, commonly referencing some attribute of the animal. Examples in English include ''[[Bitch (slang)|bitch]]'' to demean a woman or ''[[louse]]'' to describe someone unwanted.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|pp=37–38}} They may also be used in interjections like the Italian {{lang|it|porco dio}} ({{Translation|pig of a God}}).{{Sfn|Ljung|2011|p=42}} Animal-related profanity is distinct from other forms in that it is used similarly across different languages.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=43}} Terms for dogs are among the most common animal swears across languages, alongside those for cows, donkeys, and pigs.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=41}} Swear words related to monkeys are common in Arabic and East Asian cultures.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=45}}

[[Pejorative|Slurs]] are words that target a specific demographic.{{Sfn|Stapleton|Beers Fägersten|Stephens|Loveday|2022|p=2}} These are used to project [[xenophobia]] and [[prejudice]], often through the use of [[stereotype]]s. They typically develop in times of increased contact of conflict between different races or ethnic groups, including times of war between two or more nations.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=146, 486}} Terms for minority groups are sometimes used as swears. This can apply to both profane terms such as ''[[kike]]'' or non-profane terms such as ''[[gay#Generalized pejorative use|gay]]''.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=37}} Many of these are culture-specific.{{Sfn|Matusz|2017|p=41}} In a case of using the name of one group to demean another, [[Hun]] came to be associated with a brutish caricature of Germans, first during the [[Renaissance]] and again during [[World War I]].{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|pp=243–244}} Some terms for people of low class or status can become generically profane or derogatory. English examples include ''villain'', ''lewd'', and ''scum''.{{Sfn|Hughes|2015|p=319}}