Editing Quantitative research (section)

==Measurement==
Views regarding the role of measurement in quantitative research are somewhat divergent. Measurement is often regarded as being only a means by which observations are expressed numerically in order to investigate causal relations or associations. However, it has been argued that measurement often plays a more important role in quantitative research.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Moballeghi, M.  |author2=Moghaddam, G.G.  |name-list-style=amp |url=http://eprints.rclis.org/12286/ |title=How Do We Measure Use of Scientific Journals? A Note on Research Methodologies|journal=Scientometrics|year= 2008|volume= 76|issue= 1|pages=125–133|doi=10.1007/s11192-007-1901-y|url-access=subscription}}</ref> For example, Kuhn argued that within quantitative research, the results that are shown can prove to be strange. This is because accepting a theory based on results of quantitative data could prove to be a natural phenomenon. He argued that such abnormalities are interesting when done during the process of obtaining data, as seen below:

:When measurement departs from theory, it is likely to yield mere numbers, and their very neutrality makes them particularly sterile as a source of remedial suggestions. But numbers register the departure from theory with an authority and finesse that no qualitative technique can duplicate, and that departure is often enough to start a search (Kuhn, 1961, p. 180).

In classical physics, the theory and definitions which underpin measurement are generally [[deterministic]] in nature. In contrast, probabilistic measurement models known as the [[Rasch model]] and [[Item response theory]] models are generally employed in the social sciences. [[Psychometrics]] is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique for measuring social and psychological attributes and phenomena. This field is central to much quantitative research that is undertaken within the social sciences.

Quantitative research may involve the use of ''[[Proxy (statistics)|proxies]]'' as stand-ins for other quantities that cannot be directly measured. Tree-ring width, for example, is considered a reliable proxy of ambient environmental conditions such as the warmth of growing seasons or amount of rainfall. Although scientists cannot directly measure the temperature of past years, tree-ring width and other climate proxies have been used to provide a [[VISQ|semi-quantitative]] record of [[Temperature record of the past 1000 years|average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere back to 1000 A.D.]] When used in this way, the proxy record (tree ring width, say) only reconstructs a certain amount of the variance of the original record. The proxy may be calibrated (for example, during the period of the instrumental record) to determine how much variation is captured, including whether both short and long term variation is revealed. In the case of tree-ring width, different species in different places may show more or less sensitivity to, say, rainfall or temperature: when reconstructing a temperature record there is considerable skill in selecting proxies that are well correlated with the desired variable.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2000JD900617|url=http://www.climateaudit.info/pdf/others/Briffa.2001.jgr.pdf|title=Low-frequency temperature variations from a northern tree ring density network|year=2001|last1=Briffa|first1=Keith R.|last2=Osborn|first2=Timothy J.|last3=Schweingruber|first3=Fritz H.|last4=Harris|first4=Ian C.|last5=Jones|first5=Philip D.|last6=Shiyatov|first6=Stepan G.|last7=Vaganov|first7=Eugene A.|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=106|issue=D3|pages=2929–2941|bibcode=2001JGR...106.2929B}}</ref>