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Race and genetics
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===Race and human genetic variation=== There is broad consensus across the biological and social sciences that race is a social construct, not an accurate representation of human genetic variation.<ref name="Yudell2016">{{cite journal |last1=Yudell |first1=Michael |last2=Roberts |first2=Dorothy |last3=DeSalle |first3=Rob |last4=Tishkoff |first4=Sarah |author4-link=Sarah Tishkoff |title=Taking race out of human genetics |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2016 |volume=351 |issue=6273 |pages=564–565 |doi=10.1126/science.aac4951 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aac4951 |access-date=27 June 2024 |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=26912690 |oclc=6005630581 |s2cid=206639306 |bibcode=2016Sci...351..564Y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913114037/https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aac4951 |archive-date=13 September 2021}}</ref><ref name='Tishkoff&Kidd2004'/> As more progress has been made on sequencing the human genome, it has been found that any two humans will share an average of 99.35% of their DNA based on the approximately 3.1 billion haploid base pairs.<ref name="Auton2015">{{cite journal |last1=Auton |first1=Adam |last2=Abecasis |first2=Gonçalo R. |last3=Altshuler |first3=David M. |last4=Durbin |first4=Richard M. |last5=Bentley |first5=David R. |last6=Chakravarti |first6=Aravinda |last7=Clark |first7=Andrew G. |last8=Donnelly |first8=Peter |last9=Eichler |first9=Evan E. |last10=Flicek |first10=Paul |last11=Gabriel |first11=Stacey B. |last12=Gibbs |first12=Richard A. |last13=Green |first13=Eric D. |last14=Hurles |first14=Matthew E. |last15=Knoppers |first15=Bartha M. |last16=Korbel |first16=Jan O. |last17=Lander |first17=Eric S. |last18=Lee |first18=Charles |last19=Lehrach |first19=Hans |last20=Mardis |first20=Elaine R. |last21=Marth |first21=Gabor T. |last22=McVean |first22=Gil A. |last23=Nickerson |first23=Deborah A. |last24=Schmidt |first24=Jeanette P. |last25=Sherry |first25=Stephen T. |last26=Wang |first26=Jun |last27=Wilson |first27=Richard K. |last28=Boerwinkle |first28=Eric |last29=Doddapaneni |first29=Harsha |last30=Han |first30=Yi |last31=Korchina |first31=Viktoriya |last32=Kovar |first32=Christie |last33=Lee |first33=Sandra |last34=Muzny |first34=Donna |last35=Reid |first35=Jeffrey G. |last36=Zhu |first36=Yiming |last37=Chang |first37=Yuqi |last38=Feng |first38=Qiang |last39=Feng |first39=Xiaodong |last40=Guo |first40=Xiaosen |last41=Jian |first41=Min |last42=Jiang |first42=Hui |last43=Jin |first43=Xin |last44=Lan |first44=Tianming |last45=Li |first45=Guoqing |last46=Li |first46=Jingxiang |last47=Liu |first47=Shengmao |last48=Liu |first48=Xiao |last49=Lu |first49=Yao |last50=Ma |first50=Xuedi |last51=Tang |first51=Meifang |last52=Wang |first52=Bo |last53=Wang |first53=Guangbiao |last54=Wu |first54=Honglong |last55=Wu |first55=Renhua |last56=Xu |first56=Xun |last57=Yin |first57=Ye |last58=Zhang |first58=Dandan |last59=Zhang |first59=Wenwei |last60=Zhao |first60=Jiao |last61=Zhao |first61=Meiru |last62=Zheng |first62=Xiaole |last63=Gupta |first63=Namrata |last64=Gharani |first64=Neda |last65=Toji |first65=Lorraine H. |last66=Gerry |first66=Norman P. |last67=Resch |first67=Alissa M. |last68=Barker |first68=Jonathan |last69=Clarke |first69=Laura |last70=Gil |first70=Laurent |last71=Hunt |first71=Sarah E. |last72=Kelman |first72=Gavin |last73=Kulesha |first73=Eugene |last74=Leinonen |first74=Rasko |last75=McLaren |first75=William M. |last76=Radhakrishnan |first76=Rajesh |last77=Roa |first77=Asier |last78=Smirnov |first78=Dmitriy |last79=Smith |first79=Richard E. |last80=Streeter |first80=Ian |last81=Thormann |first81=Anja |last82=Toneva |first82=Iliana |last83=Vaughan |first83=Brendan |last84=Zheng-Bradley |first84=Xianggun |last85=Grocock |first85=Russell |last86=Humphray |first86=Sean |last87=James |first87=Terena |last88=Kingsbury |first88=Zoya |last89=Sudbrak |first89=Ralf |last90=Albrecht |first90=Marcus W. |last91=Amstislavskiy |first91=Vyacheslav S. |last92=Borodina |first92=Tatiana A. |last93=Lienhard |first93=Matthias |last94=Mertes |first94=Florian |last95=Sultan |first95=Marc |last96=Timmermann |first96=Bernd |last97=Yaspo |first97=Marie-Laure |last98=Fulton |first98=Lucinda |last99=Fulton |first99=Robert |last100=Ananiev |first100=Victor |last101=Belaia |first101=Zinaida |last102=Beloslyudtsev |first102=Dimitriy |last103=Bouk |first103=Nathan |last104=Chen |first104=Chao |last105=Church |first105=Deeanna |last106=Cohen |first106=Robert |last107=Cook |first107=Charles |last108=Garner |first108=John |last109=Hefferon |first109=Timothy |last110=Kimelman |first110=Mikhail |last111=Liu |first111=Chunlei |last112=Lopez |first112=John |last113=Meric |first113=Peter |last114=O'Sullivan |first114=Chris |last115=Ostapchuk |first115=Yuri |last116=Phan |first116=Lon |last117=Ponomarov |first117=Sergiy |last118=Schneider |first118=Valerie |last119=Shekhtman |first119=Eugene |last120=Sirotkin |first120=Karl |last121=Slotta |first121=Douglas |last122=Zhang |first122=Hua |last123=Balasubramaniam |first123=Senduran |last124=Burton |first124=John |last125=Danecek |first125=Petr |last126=Keane |first126=Thomas M. |last127=Kolb-Kokocinski |first127=Anja |last128=McCarthy |first128=Shane |last129=Stalker |first129=James |last130=Quail |first130=Michael |last131=Gollub |first131=Jeremy |last132=Webster |first132=Teresa |last133=Wong |first133=Brant |last134=Zhan |first134=Yiping |last135=Campbell |first135=Christopher L. |last136=Kong |first136=Yu |last137=Marcketta |first137=Anthony |last138=Yu |first138=Fuli |last139=Antunes |first139=Lilian |last140=Bainbridge |first140=Matthew |last141=Sabo |first141=Aniko |last142=Huang |first142=Zhuoyi |last143=Coin |first143=Lachlan J. M. |last144=Fang |first144=Lin |last145=Li |first145=Qibin |last146=Li |first146=Zhenyu |last147=Lin |first147=Haoxiang |last148=Liu |first148=Binghang |last149=Luo |first149=Ruibang |last150=Shao |first150=Haojing |last151=Xie |first151=Yinlong |last152=Ye |first152=Chen |last153=Yu |first153=Chang |last154=Zhang |first154=Fan |last155=Zheng |first155=Hancheng |last156=Zhu |first156=Hongmei |last157=Alkan |first157=Can |last158=Dal |first158=Elif |last159=Kahveci |first159=Fatma |last160=Garrison |first160=Erik P. |last161=Kural |first161=Deniz |last162=Lee |first162=Wan-Ping |last163=Fung Leong |first163=Wen |last164=Stomberg |first164=Michael |last165=Ward |first165=Alistair N. |last166=Wu |first166=Jiantao |last167=Zhang |first167=Mengyao |last168=Daly |first168=Mark J. |last169=DePristo |first169=Mark A. |last170=Handsaker |first170=Robert E. |last171=Banks |first171=Eric |last172=Bhatia |first172=Gaurav |last173=del Angel |first173=Guillermo |last174=Genovese |first174=Giulio |last175=Li |first175=Heng |last176=Kashin |first176=Seva |last177=McCarroll |first177=Steven A. |last178=Nemesh |first178=James C. |last179=Poplin |first179=Ryan E. |last180=Yoon |first180=Seungtai C. |last181=Lihm |first181=Jayon |last182=Makarov |first182=Vladimir |last183=Gottipati |first183=Srikanth |last184=Keinan |first184=Alon |last185=Rodriguez-Flores |first185=Juan L. |last186=Rausch |first186=Tobias |last187=Fritz |first187=Markus H. |last188=Stütz |first188=Adrian M. |last189=Beal |first189=Kathryn |last190=Datta |first190=Avik |last191=Herrero |first191=Javier |last192=Ritchie |first192=Graham R. S. |last193=Zerbino |first193=Daniel |last194=Sabeti |first194=Pardis C. |last195=Shlyakhter |first195=Ilya |last196=Schaffner |first196=Stephen F. |last197=Vitti |first197=Joseph |last198=Cooper |first198=David N. |last199=Ball |first199=Edward V. |last200=Stenson |first200=Peter D. |last201=Barnes |first201=Bret |last202=Bauer |first202=Markus |last203=Keira Cheetham |first203=R. |last204=Cox |first204=Anthony |last205=Eberle |first205=Michael |last206=Kahn |first206=Scott |last207=Murray |first207=Lisa |last208=Pedan |first208=John |last209=Shaw |first209=Richard |last210=Kenny |first210=Eimear E. |last211=Batzer |first211=Mark A. |last212=Konkel |first212=Miriam K. |last213=Walker |first213=Jerilyn A. |last214=MacArthur |first214=Daniel G. |last215=Lek |first215=Monkol |last216=Herwig |first216=Ralf |last217=Ding |first217=Li |last218=Koboldt |first218=Daniel C. |last219=Larson |first219=David |last220=Ye |first220=Kai |last221=Gravel |first221=Simon |author2-link=Gonçalo Abecasis |author3-link=David Altshuler (physician) |author4-link=Richard M. Durbin |author6-link=Aravinda Chakravarti |author7-link=Andrew G. Clark |author8-link=Peter Donnelly |author9-link=Evan E. Eichler |author11-link=Stacey Gabriel |author12-link=Richard Gibbs (biologist) |author13-link=Eric D. Green |author14-link=Matthew Hurles |author15-link=Bartha Knoppers |author16-link=Jan O. Korbel |author17-link=Eric Lander |author18-link=Charles Lee (scientist) |author20-link=Elaine Mardis |author22-link=Gil McVean |author23-link=Deborah Nickerson |author26-link=Wang Jun (scientist) |author27-link=Richard K. Wilson |title=A global reference for human genetic variation |journal=Nature |date=October 2015 |volume=526 |issue=7571 |pages=68–74 |doi=10.1038/nature15393 |pmid=26432245 |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=4750478 |bibcode=2015Natur.526...68T |oclc=8521848829 |id=Auton2015 |display-authors=1}}</ref><ref name="Piovesan2019">{{cite journal |last1=Piovesan |first1=Allison |last2=Chiara Pelleri |first2=Maria |last3=Antonaros |first3=Francesca |last4=Strippoli |first4=Pierluigi |last5=Caracausi |first5=Maria |last6=Vitale |first6=Lorenza |title=On the length, weight and GC content of the human genome |journal=BMC Research Notes |date=February 2019 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=106 |doi=10.1186/s13104-019-4137-z |pmid=30813969 |publisher=[[BioMed Central]] |doi-access=free |issn=1756-0500 |pmc=6391780 |oclc=8016439744}}</ref> However, this number should be understood as an average, any two specific individuals can have their genomes differ by more or less than 0.65%. Additionally, this average is an estimate, subject to change as additional sequences are discovered and populations sampled. In 2010, the genome of [[Craig Venter]] was found to differ by an estimated 1.59% from a [[reference genome]] created by the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]].<ref name="Pang2010">{{cite journal |last1=Pang |first1=Andy W. |last2=MacDonald |first2=Jeffrey R. |last3=Pinto |first3=Dalila |last4=Wei |first4=John |last5=Rafiq |first5=Muhammad A. |last6=Conrad |first6=Donald F. |last7=Park |first7=Hansoo |last8=Hurles |first8=Matthew E. |author8-link=Matthew Hurles |last9=Lee |first9=Charles |author9-link=Charles Lee (scientist) |last10=Venter |first10=J. Craig |author10-link=Craig Venter |last11=Kirkness |first11=Ewan F. |last12=Levy |first12=Samuel |last13=Feuk |first13=Lars |last14=Scherer |first14=Stephen W. |author14-link=Stephen W. Scherer |title=Towards a comprehensive structural variation map of an individual human genome |journal=[[Genome Biology]] |date=May 2010 |volume=11 |issue=5 |page=R52 |doi=10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-r52 |pmid=20482838 |publisher=[[BioMed Central]] |doi-access=free |issn=1474-760X |pmc=2898065 |oclc=5660396679 |id=Pang2010}}</ref> <!--to do: add discussion of human genetic diversity in comparison to chimpanzees--> We nonetheless see wide individual variation in phenotype, which arises from both genetic differences and complex gene-environment interactions. The vast majority of this genetic variation occurs ''within'' groups; very little genetic variation differentiates ''between'' groups.<ref name='Rosenberg2002'/> Crucially, the between-group genetic differences that do exist do not map onto socially recognized categories of race. Furthermore, although human populations show some genetic clustering across geographic space, human genetic variation is "[[Cline (biology)|clinal]]", or continuous.<ref name='AABAstatement'/><ref name='Tishkoff&Kidd2004'/> This, in addition to the fact that different traits vary on different clines, makes it impossible to draw discrete genetic boundaries around human groups. Finally, insights from ancient DNA are revealing that no human population is "pure" – all populations represent a long history of migration and mixing.<ref name=reich>{{cite book |last1=Reich |first1=David |title=Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past |date=29 March 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-255438-3 |page=xxiv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKZTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR24 |language=en}}</ref>
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