Editing Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe (section)

==American War of Independence==

At the beginning of the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]], Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists. He had known [[Benjamin Franklin]] since late 1774 and was joined in a commission with his brother, [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|General Sir William Howe]], head of the land forces, to attempt a reconciliation.<ref name=heath124/>

===Blockade===
[[File:Die Anlandung der Englischen Trouppen zu Neu Yorck (cropped).jpeg|thumb|280px|The arrival of British troops in New York in 1776]]
Howe was ordered to institute a [[Blockade|naval blockade]] of the American coastline, but this proved to be ineffective. Howe claimed to have too few ships to successfully accomplish this, particularly as a number had to be detached to support operations by the [[British Army during the American War of Independence|British Army]]. As a result, large amounts of covert French supplies and [[Ammunition|munitions]] were smuggled to America. It has been suggested that Howe's limited blockade at this point was driven by his sympathy with and desire for conciliation with the Americans.<ref>Syrett 2006, pp. 63–64.</ref> By 1778 the blockade was looking more promising, with many merchant ships being taken. Howe complained to London that while his ships were able to successfully guard the southern colonies, the blockade of the northern colonies was still ineffective.<ref>Syrett 2006, p. 75.</ref>

===New York and Philadelphia===
The strategy of the British in North America was to deploy a combination of operations aimed at capturing major cities and a blockade of the coast.<ref>Syrett 2006, p. 66.</ref> The British took [[Long Island]] in August 1776 and captured [[New York City]] in September 1776 in combined operations involving the army and the navy during the [[New York and New Jersey campaign]]. He represented the Crown at the [[Staten Island Peace Conference]] held on 11 September 1776.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lord Howe's Conference with the Committee of Congress|date= 11 September 1776 |publisher=National Archives|access-date=15 April 2022|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-22-02-0358}}</ref> In 1777 Howe provided support to his brother's [[Philadelphia campaign|operation to capture Philadelphia]], ferrying General Howe's army to a landing point from which they successfully marched and took the city. Howe spent much of the remainder of the year concentrating on [[Siege of Fort Mifflin|capturing Forts Mifflin]] and [[Fort Mercer|Mercer]] which controlled entry to the [[Delaware River]] without which ships could not reach Philadelphia. News of the [[Battles of Saratoga|capture of a separate British army]] under General [[John Burgoyne]] threw British plans into disarray. Howe spent the winter in [[Newport, Rhode Island]].<ref>Syrett 2006, pp. 69–75.</ref>

===Return to England===
[[File:Porslin. Medaljong. Vit figur mot blå bakgrund. 1700-talets slut - Hallwylska museet - 89089 (cropped) (cropped).tif|thumb|left|[[Wedgwood]] [[jasperware]] portrait medallion; a sign of Howe's celebrity (detail).]]
In Summer 1778 a French squadron commanded by the [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing|Comte d'Estaing]] was sent to America. Howe's fleet was delayed departing New York by contrary winds, and he arrived off [[Point Judith, Rhode Island|Point Judith]] on 9 August.<ref>Dearden, p. 76.</ref> Since d'Estaing's fleet outnumbered Howe's, the French admiral, fearful that Howe would be further reinforced and eventually gain a numerical advantage, reboarded the French troops, and sailed out to do battle with Howe on 10 August.<ref name=Daughan177>Daughan, p. 177.</ref> As the two fleets prepared to battle and manoeuvred for position, the weather deteriorated, and a [[nor'easter|major storm]] broke out.  Raging for two days, the storm scattered both fleets, severely damaging the French flagship.<ref name=Mahan362>Mahan, p. 362.</ref> As the two fleets sought to regroup, individual ships encountered enemy ships, and there were several minor naval skirmishes; two French ships (including d'Estaing's flagship), already suffering storm damage, were badly mauled in these encounters.<ref name=Mahan362/> The French fleet regrouped off Delaware, and returned to Newport on 20 August, while the British fleet regrouped at New York.<ref name=Mahan363>Mahan, p. 363.</ref>

Three of Howe's ships, the sixth-rate {{HMS|Sphinx|1775|6}}, the converted [[Cargo ship|merchantman]] {{HMS|Vigilant|1777|6}} and the [[galley|row galley]] [[USS Spitfire (1776)|HMS ''Spitfire Galley'']], bombarded American troops during the [[Battle of Rhode Island]] on 29 August.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rihs.org/assetts/files/publications/2009_WinSpring.pdf|title=The Forgotten Ships of the Battle of Rhode Island|first=D. K.|last=Abbass|date=2009|publisher=The Rhode Island Historical Society|access-date=25 April 2015}}</ref> Howe then chased the remaining ships of the French fleet to [[Boston]] in [[Massachusetts]] where they made repairs. With no prospect of the French fleet coming out of port, Howe left his station in September 1778.<ref name=heath124/>

Declining to serve afterwards, Howe cited distrust of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]] and a lack of support during his command in America. He was further embittered by the replacement of himself and his brother as peace commissioners, as well as by attacks in the press against him by ministerial writers including the prominent [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] [[Joseph Galloway]]. An inquiry in Parliament demanded by the Howe brothers to justify their conduct in America was held during 1779 but ended inconclusively.<ref>Syrett 2006, pp. 95–98.</ref> Howe spent much of the next three years with the opposition attacking the government's alleged mismanagement of the war at sea. The only exception was his support of a motion of thanks to Admiral George Rodney for his victory against the Spanish during the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)|Moonlight Battle]].<ref>Syrett 2006, p. 99.</ref>

As Howe had joined the opposition in Parliament to North's government, it was clear that until it was replaced he would be unable to secure a fresh naval command. Despite the setback at Saratoga, and the entry of France, Spain and the Dutch Republic into the war, North's government continued to gain strength until October 1781 when a British army under [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] was forced to surrender to a combined Franco-American force at [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]]. Although the government was able to continue for several more months its effective power had been sapped.<ref>Rodger 2006, pp. 343–353.</ref> In March 1782 the House of Commons passed a motion ending offensive actions against the American rebels, although the war around the rest of the globe continued with the same intensity. North's government then fell and was replaced by a weak coalition of Whigs led by the [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Marquess of Rockingham]].<ref name=odnb/>

===Command of the Channel Fleet===
[[File:Thomas Gainsborough - Mary, Countess of Howe - WGA08407.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of Countess Howe (Gainsborough)|Portrait of Countess Howe]]'' by [[Thomas Gainsborough]], 1764]]
Not until the fall of Lord North's government in March 1782 did Howe once again accept a command. Despite the suspension of hostilities in America, the war in Europe continued with the same force and the Royal Navy was severely stretched in having to deal with the French, Spanish and Dutch fleets. Howe received instructions from [[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel|Augustus Keppel]], the new First Lord of the Admiralty to proceed to [[Portsmouth]] and take command of the [[Channel Fleet]] which he did in April 1782.<ref name=heath124/> Promoted to full [[admiral]] on 8 April 1782,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=12286|page=2|date=9 April 1782}}</ref> he was created [[Earl Howe|Viscount Howe]] in the [[Peerage of Great Britain]] on 20 April 1782.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=12290|page=1|date=23 April 1782}}</ref>

Howe's task was complex. He had to protect inbound trade convoys from the Americas, keep track of the Franco-Spanish fleet, while also keeping an eye on the Dutch fleet at port in the [[Texel]] but reportedly ready to sail. He also had to keep in mind the need to attempt a relief of [[Gibraltar]] which had been [[Great Siege of Gibraltar|under siege for several years]] and would be forced to surrender if it wasn't resupplied soon. Howe had to accomplish these tasks with significantly fewer ships than his combined opponents. Keppel observed the Royal Navy's best hope was quickly to shift their limited forces from one area of danger to another.<ref name="Syrett 2006 p. 101">Syrett 2006, p. 101.</ref>

In May Howe took a number of ships to the Dutch coast to scout out Dutch preparations. If the Dutch made a [[sortie]] into the [[North Sea]] they would be able to threaten Britain's vital [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] convoys, including precious naval stores which were needed for continuing the war. This in turn might lead the Dutch to launch attacks on the East coast of England. As the Dutch fleet appeared unlikely to immediately put to sea, Howe returned to Britain leaving a squadron of nine ships to keep a watch on the Texel.<ref name="Syrett 2006 p. 101"/> The French and Spanish fleets had sailed from [[Brest, France|Brest]] and [[Cádiz]] and combined in the [[Western Approaches]], where they managed to capture some merchant ships. Howe put to sea to try and monitor them, and received information that a major trade convoy was incoming from the [[West Indies]].<ref>Syrett 2006, p. 102.</ref>

Howe had only 25 ships-of-the-line against 36 enemy ships under [[Luis de Córdova y Córdova|Admiral Córdoba]] and was separated by them from the convoy he was ordered to protect. He sent a message for the convoy to put into safety in ports in [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]. Howe then took his fleet through a dangerous route, around the north side of the [[Isles of Scilly]]. This allowed him to get between the inbound convoy and the Franco-Spanish fleet as well as allowing him to gain the [[Weather gage|weather gauge]] which would be a major advantage in any battle.<ref>Rodger 2006, p. 355.</ref> The next morning the Franco-Spanish fleet had disappeared. After waiting a while Howe decided to go in pursuit of them, later receiving news that the West Indian convoy had safely reached harbour in the English Channel. The Franco-Spanish fleet had been blown southwards by a strong [[gale]], and then received orders in early August to return home.<ref>Syrett 2006, pp. 102–103.</ref>

===Relief of Gibraltar===
[[File:Escadre de Richard Howe en vue de Gibraltar 1782.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Relief of Gibraltar by Earl Howe, 11 October 1782'', by [[Richard Paton]]. Howe, flying his flag aboard the 100-gun {{HMS|Victory}} in the centre, approaches Gibraltar. To the right are the ships of the van, with Vice-Admiral [[Samuel Barrington]]'s 100-gun {{HMS|Britannia|1762|6}}, and to the left, those of the rear squadron, commanded by Vice-Admiral [[Mark Milbanke]] in the 98-gun {{HMS|Ocean|1761|6}}. The Franco-Spanish fleet can be seen in the background, anchored in [[Bay of Gibraltar|Algeciras Bay]].]]
{{Main article|Great Siege of Gibraltar}}
In September 1782, Howe carried out the relief of [[Gibraltar]] – a difficult operation, 46 French and Spanish ships-of-the-line against only 33 of his own. The exhausted state of the fleet made it impossible for Howe to fit his ships properly or supply them with good crews, and Howe's progress to Gibraltar was hampered by the need to escort a large convoy carrying stores. Howe successfully relieved Gibraltar and then fought an indecisive action at the [[Battle of Cape Spartel]] in October 1782 after which he was able to bring his fleet safely back to Britain, bringing an effective end to the naval campaign.<ref name=heath124/>