Editing Rupert Blue (section)

===Career===
Blue spent his early years in the MHS at the front lines of turn-of-the-century [[public health]], participating in the medical inspection of immigrants of the [[United States]] and battling outbreaks of epidemic disease. Then-Surgeon General [[Walter Wyman]] dispatched Blue twice to oversee rat eradication and urban sanitation programs after [[bubonic plague]] struck [[San Francisco]], once in February 1903 during the [[San Francisco plague of 1900–1904]], and again in August 1907 during a second series which followed the 1906 [[earthquake]] and fires.

During his initial deployment Blue acted as a middleman reporting back to Wyman concerning the political climate surrounding [[San Francisco]].<ref name="risse">{{cite book|last1=Risse|first1=Gunter B.|title=Plague, Fear, and Politics in San Francisco's Chinatown|date=2012|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, Maryland}}</ref> The majority of Blue's work consisted of acting as a mediator between the various branches of government who at the time were conflicted on their opinions of whether or not the [[bubonic plague]] was actually present in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="risse" /> Upon arriving Blue was able to organize a conference between the federal, state, civil and business leaders of the area to discuss the sanitation conditions in Chinatown, where the majority of plague cases were aggregated within the city.<ref name="risse" />

Blue's primary concern was to secure funding to improve the sanitation conditions of Chinatown through the implementation and maintenance of sanitation measures.<ref name="risse" /> These proposed measures consisted of vermin eradication, growing scientific evidence pointed to rats as carriers of the plague, and creating physical barriers between rats and humans through [[Cementation (geology)|cementation]] of basement floors and walls.<ref name="risse" />

This initial conference, organized by Blue, ended with the adaptation of a binding resolution that prioritized funding for sanitation campaigns throughout [[San Francisco]] until the city was declared plague free.<ref name="risse" /> This was the first time all levels of government had been able to put political differences aside and agree on a direction together.<ref name="risse" /> These conference meetings continued to occur on a biweekly notice, and eventually led to the creation of the Public Health Commission of California with Blue as its inaugural president in April 1903.<ref name="risse" />

Funding for these sanitation campaigns lasted from 1903 through 1905 at which time [[San Francisco]] was declared plague free due to a decrease in mortality rate within Chinatown and the lack of any new cases reported to officials.<ref name="risse" /> The success of these sanitation programs were credited to Blue for his diplomacy skills among the different levels of government.<ref name="risse" /> With the implementation of these programs Blue was able to stem the plague and enable Wyman to avoid imposing a federal quarantine on the bay area.<ref name="risse" />

In April 1905, with pressure from the municipal government of [[San Francisco]] and no new cases, Blue succeeded his position as head of the United States Public Health Service in [[San Francisco]] (after being appointed in May 1903) to Donald Currie before heading off to his next post.<ref name="risse" />
[[File:Rupert Blue 2.jpg|left|thumb|Rupert Blue]]
When he wasn't trapping rats and squirrels in California, Blue directed [[mosquito]] eradication efforts to control [[yellow fever]] in [[New Orleans]] (1905), at the [[Jamestown Exposition]] (1907), and in [[Honolulu]] (1911), to help Hawaii prepare for traffic to follow the opening of the new [[Panama Canal]]. In addition, he represented the United States on a number of sanitation projects in [[South America]] and attended the [[London School of Tropical Medicine]] (1910). Blue's successes in the field made his reputation. He was promoted to the position of Surgeon (17 May 1909), and after Wyman died unexpectedly, President [[William Howard Taft]] nominated Blue to serve as Surgeon General (13 January 1912 through 3 March 1920).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=Thomas F. |date=April 1912  |title="What I Am Trying To Do": An Authorized Interview With Dr. Rupert Blue |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXIII |pages=653–657 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Vv--PfedzLAC&pg=PA653|access-date=2009-07-10 }}</ref> Blue would go on to serve a second four-year term under President [[Woodrow Wilson]] (1916–1920).

Surgeon General Blue the plague fighter became an institution builder as well. He inherited the [[Act of 1912]], which reoriented PHS toward research and public campaigns against disease. Passage of the Act of 1912 capped 6 years of lively debate about how to strengthen Federal public health efforts more generally. It designated the [[U.S. Treasury Department]]’s Marine Hospital and Public Health Service, rather than the Department of the Interior, as the lead Federal agency (and shortened the name to PHS), responsible not only for interstate quarantine and health services delivery to Federal wards but also for the health of the general public. The Act stepped up Federal public health activities, most notably in response to repeated outbreaks of typhoid fever that tore through cities and towns that drew drinking water from increasingly contaminated supplies. The Act of 1912 authorized Hygienic Laboratory investigations into water pollution's contribution to the disease burden, including a new field research station at [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]. Interstate guidelines were developed and put into effect to ensure potable water and pasteurized milk. PHS received authority to initiate field research independently of county and [[state health department]]s and to extend campaigns against infectious disease toward the control of occupational and environmental threats. During 1914 PHS opened an Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation at the [[United States Marine Hospital (Pittsburgh)|Marine Hospital in Pittsburgh]], near the [[Department of the Interior]]’s new Bureau of Mines.

Under Blue's leadership, physician researchers at PHS turned the new science of bacteriology and the age-old practices of sanitation and public education to effective use against diseases linked to poverty in both rural and urban areas.

* Dr. [[George McCoy (doctor)|George McCoy]] documented [[tularemia]]’s [[bacterium|bacteria]]l origins.
* Dr. [[Charles Stiles]] charted the extent of [[hookworm disease]], and its positive correlation with insanitary soil conditions, throughout the Southeast.
* Dr. [[Joseph Goldberger]] used field studies at [[Spartanburg, South Carolina]] and at the Rankin State Prison Farm to uncover the nutritional deficiencies at the root of [[pellagra]] (1914–1915).<ref name="Miss">{{cite web |last1=Lampton |first1=Lucius M |title=Joseph Goldberger |url=https://mississippiencyclopedia.org/entries/joseph-goldberger/ |website=Mississippi Encyclopedia |access-date=6 March 2025}}</ref>
* Dr. [[Leslie Lumsden]] reduced the prevalence of [[typhoid fever]] through rural privy-building campaigns and spurred the establishment of the first full-time county health department, at [[Yakima, Washington]] (1911).
* Dr. John McMullan brought his knowledge of trachoma treatment and prevention from work with immigrants to public health campaigns among American Indians and rural populations in the Ozarks and Southern Appalachian mountains, setting up the first of his temporary hospitals at [[Hindman, Kentucky]] (1913).