Editing Scalping (section)

==Americas==
{{Main|American Indian Wars}}
[[File:A scalp dance.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a scalp dance from the 1919 edition of 1884 children's book ''Indian History for Young Folks'' by Francis S. Drake<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heritage History {{!}} Indian History for Young Folks by Francis Drake |url=https://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=read&author=drake&book=indians&story=_front |access-date=2022-05-04 |website=www.heritage-history.com}}</ref>]]

Scalping in the Americas predominantly arose from the practices of Native American tribes, and was later copied by European colonists on the continent. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Joseph |title=The Origins of Scalping |url=https://www.oldwest.org/origins-of-scalping/ |website=oldwest.org |date=19 September 2021 |access-date=3 January 2024}}</ref>

===Techniques===
Specific scalping techniques varied somewhat from place to place, depending on the cultural patterns of the scalper regarding the desired shape, size, and intended use of the severed scalp, and on how the victims wore their hair, but the general process of scalping was quite uniform:<blockquote>They seize the head of the disabled or dead enemy, and placing one of their feet on the neck, twist their left hand in the hair; by this means, having extended the skin that covers the top of the head, they draw out their scalping knives, which are always kept in good order for this cruel purpose, and with a few dextrous strokes take off the part that is termed the scalp. They are so expeditious in doing this, that the whole time required scarcely exceeds a minute.<ref>[[Jonathan Carver]], ''Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768'' ([[John Coakley Lettsom]], ed.), [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/49753/pg49753-images.html#Page_328 pp.328-329], (3d ed., London, 1781) (retrieved May 5, 2024).</ref></blockquote>The scalp separated from the skull along the plane of the [[Loose connective tissue#Areolar tissue|areolar connective tissue]], the fourth (and least substantial) of the five layers of the human scalp. Scalping was not in itself fatal, though it was most commonly inflicted on the gravely wounded or the dead. The earliest instruments used in scalping were stone knives crafted of [[flint]], [[chert]], or [[obsidian]], or other materials like [[Reed (plant)|reeds]] or [[oyster]] shells that could be worked to carry an edge equal to the task. Collectively, such tools were also used for a variety of everyday tasks like skinning and processing game, but were replaced by metal knives acquired in trade through European contact. The implement, often referred to as a "scalping knife" in popular [[American literature|American]] and European literature, was not known as such by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], a knife being for them just a simple and effective multi-purpose utility tool for which scalping was but one of many uses.<ref>{{cite book|author=Burton, Richard F. |title=Anthropological Review, Vol. 2, No. 4 |date=February 1864|pages= 50–51}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=((Griffin, Anastasia M. (editor)))|date=2008|author2=Friederici, Georg|title=Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America|isbn=9780549562092|pages= 63–70}}</ref>

===Intertribal conflict===
[[File:Sauvages Tchaktas matachez en Guerriers qui portent des Chevelures.jpg|thumb|1732 illustration by Alexandre de Batz of [[Choctaw]] people of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] in [[Body painting|war paint]], bearing scalps]]
There is substantial archaeological evidence of scalping in North America in the [[pre-Columbian era]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Axtell|first1=James|last2=Sturtevant|first2=William C.|date=1980|title=The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1923812|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=37|issue=3|pages=451–472|doi=10.2307/1923812|jstor=1923812|issn=0043-5597|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Elizabeth|title=Evidence for Prehistoric Scalping in Northeastern Nebraska|date=1994|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25669265|journal=Plains Anthropologist|volume=39|issue=148|pages=211–219|doi=10.1080/2052546.1994.11931728|jstor=25669265|issn=0032-0447|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Carbon dating of skulls show evidence of scalping as early as 600 AD; some skulls show evidence of healing from scalping injuries, suggesting at least some victims occasionally survived at least several months.<ref name=":1" /> Among [[Plains Indians]], it seems to have been practiced primarily as part of intertribal warfare, with scalps only taken of enemies killed in battle.<ref name=":1" /> However, author and historian Mark van de Logt wrote, "Although military historians tend to reserve the concept of 'total war{{'"}}, in which civilians are targeted, "for conflicts between modern industrial nations," the term "closely approaches the state of affairs between the [[Pawnee people|Pawnees]], the [[Great Sioux Nation|Sioux]], and the [[Cheyennes]]. [[Non-combatant|Noncombatants]] were legitimate targets. Indeed, the taking of a scalp of a woman or child was considered honorable because it signified that the scalp taker had dared to enter the very heart of the enemy's territory."<ref>{{cite book |first=Mark |last=van de Logt |year=2012 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bbgh_hA4ib4C |title=War Party in Blue: Pawnee Scouts in the U.S. Army |publisher= [[University of Oklahoma Press]] | page=35 |isbn=978-0806184395}}</ref>

[[File:Sioux_Knife_and_Sheath.jpg|thumbnail|''Knife and Sheath'', probably [[Sioux]], early 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
Many tribes of Native Americans practiced scalping, in some instances up until the end of the 19th century. Of the approximately 500 bodies at the [[Crow Creek massacre]] site, 90 percent of the skulls show evidence of scalping. The event took place ''circa'' 1325 AD.<ref>{{Cite book
  | last1 =  Hall Steckel
  | first1 = Richard
  | last2 = R. Haines
  | first2 = Michael
  | title = A population history of North America
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&pg=PA68
  | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
  | year = 2000
  | page = 68
  | isbn = 0-521-49666-7}}
</ref> European colonisation of the Americas increased the incidence of intertribal conflict, and consequently an increase in the prevalence of scalping.<ref name=":0" />

===Colonial wars===
[[File:Stearns-hannah-duston.webp|thumb|right|1847 painting of [[Hannah Duston]] scalping the sleeping [[Abenaki]] family, including six children, who had kidnapped her and murdered her infant after the [[Raid on Haverhill (1697)]]]]

Officials in the English colonies of [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] offered bounties for the heads of killed Indians, and later for just their scalps during the [[Pequot War]].<ref name="Dunbar">{{cite book|title=[[An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States]]|last1=Dunbar-Ortiz|first1=Roxanne|date=2014|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3|page=64}}</ref><ref name="Foulds">{{cite news |last1=Foulds |first1=Diane E. |title=Who Scalped Whom? |url=https://bostonglobe.newspapers.com/image/442461106/?terms=scalped&match=1 |work=The Boston Globe |date=2000-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113040003/https://bostonglobe.newspapers.com/image/442461106/?terms=scalped&match=1 |archive-date=2023-01-13 |location=B10 |pages=36–37 |access-date=2023-01-13 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Connecticut authorities specifically reimbursed [[Mohegan]]s for killing [[Pequot]] tribespeople in 1637.<ref name="Tucker">{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|isbn=978-1851096978|page=708}}</ref> Four years later, the [[Dutch colony]] of [[New Amsterdam]] offered bounties for the heads of [[Raritan people|Raritans]].<ref name="Tucker"/> In 1643, the [[Iroquois]] attacked a group of [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]] fur traders and French carpenters near [[Montreal]], killing and scalping three Frenchmen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_24.html|title=The Jesuit Relations: Index|website=Puffin.creighton.edu|date=11 August 2014|access-date=2016-07-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321002815/http://www.puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_24.html|archive-date=2016-03-21}}</ref>

Bounties for Indian captives or their scalps appeared in the legislation of several English colonies during the [[Susquehannock]] War (1675–77).<ref>Grenier. 2005. p.39</ref> The [[New England Colonies]] offered bounties to white settlers and [[Narragansett people]] in 1675 during [[King Philip's War]].<ref name="Tucker"/> By 1692, [[New France]] also paid their native allies for scalps of their enemies.<ref name="Tucker"/> In 1697, on the northern frontier of Massachusetts colony, white settler [[Hannah Duston]] killed ten of her [[Abenaki]] captors during her nighttime escape, presented their ten scalps to the [[Massachusetts General Court]] and was rewarded with bounties for two men, two women, and six children, even though colonial authorities had rescinded the law authorizing scalp bounties six months earlier.<ref name="Dunbar"/> There were six colonial wars with New England and the [[Iroquois Confederacy]] fighting New France and the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] over a 75-year period, starting with [[King William's War]] in 1688. All sides scalped victims, including noncombatants, during this frontier warfare.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/stream/louisbourgfromit00mcleuoft#page/424/mode/2up |author1=MacLellan, Louisbourg ("Appendix: Scalping")|author2= John Grenier|title= The First Way of War: American War Making On the Frontier, 1607-1814 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|date= 2005}}</ref> Bounty policies originally intended only for Native American scalps were extended to enemy colonists.<ref name="Tucker"/>

Massachusetts created a scalp bounty during King William's War in July 1689, and continued doing so during [[Queen Anne's War]] in 1703.<ref name=comics/><ref>{{cite book|author=Grenier, John|title= First Way of War|page= 39}}</ref> During [[Father Rale's War]] (1722–1725), on August 8, 1722, Massachusetts put a bounty on native families, paying 100 pounds sterling for the scalps of male Indians aged 12 and over, and 50 pounds sterling for women and children.<ref name="Foulds"></ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Williamson, William|title= The History of the State of Maine, Vol 2|pages= 117–118}}</ref> Ranger [[John Lovewell (Junior)|John Lovewell]] is known to have conducted scalp-hunting expeditions, the most famous being the [[Battle of Pequawket]] in New Hampshire.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

In the 1710s and 1720s, New France engaged in frontier warfare with the [[Natchez people]] and the [[Meskwaki|Meskwaki people]], during which both sides employed the practice.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} In response to repeated attacks on British settlers by the French and their native allies during [[King George's War]], Massachusetts Governor [[William Shirley]] issued a bounty in 1746 to be paid to British-allied Indians for the scalps of French-allied Indian men, women, and children.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXIvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA134 |title=A particular history of the five years French and Indian War in New England ...|author1=Drake, Samuel Gardner |author2=Shirley, William |page= 134|year=1870|publisher=J. Munsell |isbn=9780917890420}}</ref> New York passed a scalp act in 1747.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CNuYaTMqy30C&q=-wikipedia+%22new+york%22+scalp+act+of+1747&pg=PA81 | title = White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America | isbn = 9780374281281 | last1 = O'Toole | first1 = Fintan | year = 2005| publisher = Macmillan }}</ref>

During [[Father Le Loutre's War]] and the [[Seven Years' War]] in [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Acadia]], [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonists]] offered payments to Indians for British scalps.<ref>John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press. 2008</ref> In 1749, governor of Nova Scotia [[Edward Cornwallis]] created an proclamation which included a bounty for male scalps or prisoners, though no scalps were turned in. During the Seven Years' War, governor of Nova Scotia [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Charles Lawrence]] offered a reward for male Mi'kmaq scalps in 1756.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/n43/mode/2up |title=Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society |website=Archive.org |year=1878 |publisher=Halifax |access-date=2016-07-28}}</ref> In 2000, Mi'kmaq activists argued that this proclamation was still legal in Nova Scotia, though government officials pointed out that it was no longer legal because the bounty was superseded by the [[Halifax Treaties]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/two-hundred-year-old-scalp-law-still-on-books-in-nova-scotia-1.230906 |title=Two hundred year-old scalp law still on books in Nova Scotia - Canada - CBC News |website=Cbc.ca |date=2000-01-04 |access-date=2016-07-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518101343/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/two-hundred-year-old-scalp-law-still-on-books-in-nova-scotia-1.230906 |archive-date=2016-05-18 }}</ref>

During the [[French and Indian War]], as of June 12, 1755, Massachusetts governor William Shirley was offering a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of females or of children under 12 years old.<ref name=comics/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKfBId96DTIC&pg=PA88 |title=Chronology of American Indian History |author=Liz Sonneborn |page=88 |date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase |access-date=2016-07-28|isbn=9781438109848 }}</ref>  In 1756, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Governor Robert Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 [[Spanish dollar|Pieces of Eight]], for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years," and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."<ref name=comics>{{cite web |url=http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm |title=Scalping, Torture, and Mutilation by Indians |publisher=Blue Corn Comics |access-date=2016-07-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831170415/http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm |archive-date=2016-08-31 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.simpson.edu/nick.proctor/www/1756/war.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140207020013/http://faculty.simpson.edu/nick.proctor/www/1756/war.htm|url-status=dead|title=Declaration of War|date=7 February 2014|archive-date=7 February 2014|website=simpson.edu}}</ref>

Although much has been made of the existence of scalp bounties, generally because they have been easily accessible as statutes, little research exists on the numbers of bounties actually paid.  Early frontier warfare in forested areas in the era of flintlock muzzle-loading rifles favored tomahawks and knives over firearms because of the long loading time after a shot was fired.  Advantage was clearly held by bow, knife, and hatchet.  Some states had a history of escalating the payout of bounties offered per scalp, presumably because lower bounties were ineffective and were not worth risking one's life in exchange for the payoff.  Rising bounties were a measure of bounty system failure.{{fact|date=September 2023}}

===American Revolutionary War===
[[File:"British and Indians, War of 1812!".jpg|thumb|An American [[political cartoon]] made during the [[War of 1812]]. It depicts a British officer giving a Native warrior (referred to as a "[[Savage (pejorative term)|Savage]] Indian") a reward for an American soldier's scalp accompanied by a poem.]]

During the [[American Revolutionary War]], [[British Indian Department]] official [[Henry Hamilton (governor)|Henry Hamilton]] was nicknamed the "hair-buyer general" by [[Patriot (American Revolution)|American Patriots]] as they believed he encouraged and paid British-allied Natives to scalp Americans. As a result, when Hamilton was captured by American troops, he was treated as a war criminal instead of a [[prisoner of war]]. However, American historians have noted that there was no proof that he had ever offered rewards for scalps,<ref>{{cite DCB |last=Arthur |first=Elizabeth |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/hamilton_henry_4E.html |title=Hamilton, Henry |volume=4}}</ref> and no British officer paid for scalps during the conflict.<ref>Kelsey pg. 303</ref>

However, both sides of the war scalped enemy corpses. The September 13, 1779 journal entry of American Lieutenant William Barton recounted how U.S. troops scalped Native dead during the [[Sullivan Expedition]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924095654384#page/n38/mode/1up/ |title=Journals of the military expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six nations of Indians in 1779; with records of centennial celebrations; prepared pursuant to chapter 361, laws of the state of New York, of 1885 |website=Archive.org |year=1887 |publisher=Auburn, N.Y., Knapp, Peck & Thomson, Printers |access-date=2016-07-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322181618/https://archive.org/stream/cu31924095654384#page/n38/mode/1up/ |archive-date=2016-03-22 }}</ref> British-allied [[Iroquois]] also practiced scalping. The most famous case was that of [[Jane McCrea]], whose fiancé was a Loyalist officer. She was abducted by two Iroquois warriors and ultimately scalped and shot. Her death inspired many American colonists to resist a British invasion from Canada, which ended in defeat at the [[battles of Saratoga]].<ref>Peter R. Silver Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York) WW Norton 2009) 246</ref>

===Mexico===
During the [[Apache–Mexico Wars]] in 1835, the government of the Mexican state of [[Sonora]] put a bounty on the [[Apache]] which,<ref name="haley"/> over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.<ref>History Of The North Mexican States And Texas, Vol. II 1801-1889, San Francisco, The History Company, Publishers,1889, Chapter 24</ref> In 1837, the Mexican state of [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] also offered a bounty on Apache scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.<ref name="haley">{{cite book |first=James L. |last=Haley |author-link=James L. Haley |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RAfJwmMeq5IC&pg=PA51 |title=Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait |publisher= [[University of Oklahoma Press]] | page=51 |isbn= 0806129786}}</ref> Harris Worcester wrote: "The new policy attracted a diverse group of men, including Anglos, runaway slaves led by Seminole John Horse, and Indians — [[James Kirker|Kirker]] used [[Lenape|Delawares]] and [[Shawnee]]s; others, such as Terrazas, used [[Rarámuri people|Tarahumaras]]; and Seminole chief [[Wild Cat (Seminole)|Coacoochee]] led a band of his own people who had fled from Indian Territory."<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald Emmet |last=Worcester |year=1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah41qFanhIEC |title=Pioneer Trails West |publisher= Caxton Press | page=93 |isbn= 0870043048}}</ref> Mexico's scalp bounties were infamously exploited by the [[Glanton gang]]: originally charged with fighting the Apache, the gang later began to take scalps from peaceful Natives and non-Native Mexicans.<ref name="TSHO">{{citation |last=Smith |first=Ralph Adam |author2=Sloan Rodgers |display-authors=1 |contribution-url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/glanton-john-joel |contribution=John Joel Glanton |url=https://www.tshaonline.org |title=Texas Handbook of History Online |date=1952 |location=Austin |publisher=Texas State Historical Association }}.</ref>

===American Civil War===
Some scalping incidents occurred during the [[American Civil War]] of 1861-1865. For example, [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[Guerrilla warfare in the American Civil War|guerrillas]] led by [[William T. Anderson|"Bloody Bill" Anderson]] were well known for decorating their saddles with the scalps of [[Union (American Civil War)|Union soldiers]] they had killed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/james/peopleevents/p_anderson.html |title=William "Bloody Bill" Anderson . Jesse James . WGBH American Experience |website=PBS.org |access-date=2016-07-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604130640/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/james/peopleevents/p_anderson.html |archive-date=2011-06-04 }}</ref>  [[Archie Clement]] had the reputation of being Anderson's “chief scalper”.

===Continued Indian Wars===
In 1851, the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] displayed Indian scalps in [[Stanislaus County, California]]. 

In 1851, the Tehama Massacre occurred in [[Tehama County, California]], wherein U.S. military and citizens razed villages and scalped hundreds of men, women, and children.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pfaelzer |first1=Jean |url=https://archive.org/details/drivenoutforgott00pfae |title=Driven Out: The Forgotten War against Chinese Americans |date=2007 |publisher=Random House |isbn=9781400061341 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> This attack targeted Native communities specifically, in the villages of Yana, Konkow, Nisenan, Wintu, Nomlaki, Patwin, Yuki, and Maidu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tehama Massacre (California) |url=https://nativephilanthropy.candid.org/events/tehama-massacre-california |access-date=2022-05-04 |website=Investing in Native Communities |language=en-US}}</ref>

Scalping also occurred during the [[Sand Creek Massacre]] on November 29, 1864, during the [[American Indian Wars]], when a 700-man force of U.S. Army volunteers destroyed the village of [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]] in southeastern [[Colorado Territory]], killing and mutilating<ref name="A Century of Dishonor">{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Helen|title=A Century of Dishonor|date=1994|publisher=Indian Head Books|location=United States|isbn=1-56619-167-X|page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofdishono0000jack/page/344 344]|url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofdishono0000jack/page/344}}</ref><ref name="hoig_book">{{cite book|last=Hoig|first=Stan|title=The Sand Creek Massacre|year=2005|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman|page=153|isbn=978-0-8061-1147-6|orig-year=1974}}</ref> an estimated 70–163 Native American civilians.<ref name="Dee_book">{{cite book| last = Brown| first = Dee| title = Bury my heart at Wounded Knee| orig-year  = 1970| publisher = Macmillan| chapter = War Comes to the Cheyenne| pages = 86–87| isbn = 978-0-8050-6634-0| year = 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/program/episodes/four/whois.htm |title=THE WEST - Who is the Savage? |website=Pbs.org |access-date=2016-07-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726000602/http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/program/episodes/four/whois.htm |archive-date=2016-07-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=John Evans Study Report|url=https://portfolio.du.edu/downloadItem/286858|publisher=[[University of Denver]]|access-date=6 January 2016|date=November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207203926/https://portfolio.du.edu/downloadItem/286858|archive-date=7 December 2014}}</ref> An 1867 ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article reported that "settlers in a small town in Colorado Territory had recently subscribed $5,000 to a fund ‘for the purpose of buying Indian scalps (with $25 each to be paid for scalps with the ears on)’ and that the market for Indian scalps ‘is not affected by age or sex’." The article noted this behavior was "sanctioned" by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]], and was modeled on patterns the U.S. had begun a century earlier in the "American East".<ref name="Kakel">{{cite book|last1=Kakel|first1=Carroll P.|title=The American West and the Nazi East, A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective|date=2011|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan}}</ref>{{rp|206}}

From one writer's point of view, it was a "uniquely American" innovation that the use of scalp bounties in the wars against indigenous societies "became an indiscriminate killing process that deliberately targeted Indian non-combatants (including women, children, and infants), as well as warriors."<ref name="Kakel"/>{{rp|204}} Some American states such as Arizona paid bounty for enemy Native American scalps.<ref>World of the American Indian, by Jules B. Billard, National Geographic Society; First Printing edition (1974), Washington DC</ref>