Editing Sinicization (section)

===Historical===
====Baiyue====
Before sinicization, non-Chinese indigenous peoples of [[South China|southern China]], collectively termed by the Chinese as ''[[Baiyue]] (''{{Lang-zh|c=百越|l=Hundreds of Yue Peoples}}''),'' inhabited the coastline of China from as far north as the [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]] to as far south as the [[Gulf of Tonkin]].

As early as the 11th century BC, some of the Baiyue peoples in the [[Yangtze River Delta]] started to sinicize, marked by their establishment of the [[Wu (state)|Wu State]]. These Yue peoples, together with their southerner neighbours who formed the [[Yue (state)|Yue State]] centuries later, are collectively termed as [[Yuyue]] peoples. Over time, the mutual contact between Baiyue peoples and Han Chinese, as well as southward spread of Han Chinese, mostly as [[war refugees]],{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}} led to the sinicization of most of the Baiyue populations that remained in southern China, be they in the [[Yangtze River valley|Yangtze Valley]] or in coastal areas from the mouth of the Yangtze to the Gulf of Tonkin.<ref>{{cite book|title = Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XiELAAAAIAAJ&q=in+the+southward+spread+of+Han+Chinese+led+to+the+sinicization+of+all+AN-speakers&pg=PA137|isbn = 9780871698650|last1 = Goodenough|first1 = Ward Hunt|year = 1996|publisher = American Philosophical Society|access-date = 2020-10-14|archive-date = 2023-09-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034530/https://books.google.com/books?id=XiELAAAAIAAJ&q=in+the+southward+spread+of+Han+Chinese+led+to+the+sinicization+of+all+AN-speakers&pg=PA137#v=snippet&q=in%20the%20southward%20spread%20of%20Han%20Chinese%20led%20to%20the%20sinicization%20of%20all%20AN-speakers&f=false|url-status = live}}</ref> The remnants of these peoples who were not fully sinicized are now recognized officially as the [[Ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minorities]] of the [[People's Republic of China]].

====Mongolic and Turkic peoples====
{{Main|Taoyuan County}}
[[Northern Wei|Tuoba Wei]] of northern China was a sinicized empire of Mongolic-Xianbei origin. 

Historical [[Shatuo]] Turks founded three sinicized dynasties in northern China. Descendants of [[Kingdom of Qocho|Buddhist Uyghurs]] (see also [[Yugurs]], [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and [[Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom]]) who migrated to [[Taoyuan County, Hunan]], have assimilated into the [[Hui people|Hui]] population and adopted Chinese culture practice Chinese customs, speaking [[varieties of Chinese]] as their language.

====Han, Jin, and Sixteen Kingdoms period====
{{Main|Sixteen Kingdoms}}
From the late [[Han dynasty]] to the early [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]], large numbers of non-Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the [[Xiongnu]] and [[Xianbei]] had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as the [[Di (Five Barbarians)|Di]] and [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]] were farmers and herders from the mountains of western [[Sichuan]] of southwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Chinese and were sinicized to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power by local Chinese warlords.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521497817 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/180 180] |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised}}</ref>

During the [[Three Kingdoms]] period, [[Cao Cao]] initiated the policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=David Graff |title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900 |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1134553536 |page=48}}</ref> The migration of northern Chinese people to the south further settled China as a multi-ethnic empire.

====Northern and Southern dynasties====
{{Main|Northern and Southern dynasties}}
The Northern and Southern dynasties was a period in the [[history of China]] that lasted from 386 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period. Though an age of [[civil war]] and political chaos, it was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] and [[Taoism|Daoism]]. The period saw large-scale migration of [[Han Chinese]] to the lands south of the [[Yangtze]]. The period came to an end with the unification of all of [[China proper]] by [[Emperor Wen of Sui|Emperor Wen]] of the [[Sui dynasty]]. During this period, the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Han arrivals in the north and among the indigenous people in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism ([[Chinese Buddhism#History|introduced into China in the first century]]) and Daoism in both [[northern and southern China]].<ref name=ger>{{cite book |last1=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521497817 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/192 192]–193 |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised}}</ref>

====Tang dynasty====
During the eighth and ninth centuries in the [[Tang dynasty]], Chinese male soldiers moved into [[Guizhou]] ([[Chinese postal romanization|formerly romanized as]] Kweichow) and married native non-Chinese women, their descendants being known as ''Lao-han-jen'' (original Chinese), in contrast to new Chinese people who colonized Guizhou at later times. They still spoke an archaic dialect as of 1929.<ref>{{in lang|en}} {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eG8cAAAAMAAJ|title=Scottish geographical magazine, Volumes 45–46|author=Scottish Geographical Society|year=1929|publisher=Royal Scottish Geographical Society.|page=70|access-date=2010-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517122808/https://books.google.com/books?id=eG8cAAAAMAAJ&q|archive-date=2018-05-17|url-status=live}}</ref> Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from these soldiers in garrisons who married non-Chinese women.<ref>{{in lang|en}} {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqcSAAAAIAAJ|title=The Cowrie Shell Miao of Kweichow, Volume 32, Issue 1|author=Margaret Portia Mickey|year=1947|publisher=The Museum|page=6|access-date=2010-06-28|archive-date=2023-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034613/https://books.google.com/books?id=vqcSAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Yuan dynasty====
The [[Mongols|Mongol]]-led [[Yuan dynasty]] appointed a [[Muslims|Muslim]] from [[Bukhara]], ''[[Sayyid]]'' [[Ajall Shams al-Din Omar]], as governor of [[Yunnan]] after conquering the [[Bai people|Bai]]-led [[Dali Kingdom]]. Sayyid Ajall is best known among Chinese for helping sinicize Yunnan province;<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Dillon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=na+family+hui&pg=PA22|title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1999|isbn=0-7007-1026-4|location=Richmond|page=23|access-date=2010-06-28|archive-date=2023-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034530/https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=na+family+hui&pg=PA22#v=snippet&q=na%20family%20hui&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> the promotion of [[Islam in China|Islam]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Buddhism]] would be part of his '[[civilizing mission]]' upon the non-Han Chinese peoples in Yunnan, who he viewed as "backward and barbarian."<ref name="SAYYED AJALL">{{cite web|last1=Lane|first1=George|date=June 29, 2011|title=Sayyed ajall|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sayyed-ajall|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117054524/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sayyed-ajall|archive-date=17 November 2012|access-date=17 November 2012|website=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref><ref>Atwood, Christopher P. 2004. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140813153811/http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EME454&DataType=Ancient&WinType=Free Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din]." ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Archived from [http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EME454&DataType=Ancient&WinType=Free the original] on 2014-08-13.</ref>

He founded a "Chinese style" city called Zhongjing Cheng, where modern [[Kunming]] is today, and ordered that a [[Buddhist temple]], two [[mosque]]s, and a [[Confucian temple]] be built in the city.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gaubatz|first=Piper Rae|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drGGEsi1fFEC&q=sichuan+ajall+yuan&pg=PA78|title=Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1996|isbn=0804723990|edition=illustrated|page=78|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034531/https://books.google.com/books?id=drGGEsi1fFEC&q=sichuan+ajall+yuan&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=administrators+Shams+al-din+umar++al+bukhari|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|publisher=The Institute|year=1986|page=385|quote=certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost among these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan&nbsp;... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din—who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region—is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927034530/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=administrators+Shams+al-din+umar++al+bukhari|url-status=live}}</ref> The latter temple, built in 1274 and doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tan Ta Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA92|title=Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2009|isbn=978-9812308375|edition=illustrated, reprint|page=92|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513091008/https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA92|archive-date=13 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> By incorporating Chinese and consequently Confucian thought in the dynasty, scholars now deem Kublai Khan as an adopted Chinese citizen of Mongol ethnicity, rather than simply being mutually excluded from the definition of fellow Chinese he governed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carter|first=James|title=How Kublai Khan's Yuan complicates the notion of 'China'|date=16 December 2020|url=https://supchina.com/2020/12/16/how-kublai-khans-yuan-complicates-the-notion-of-china/|access-date=31 May 2021|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213411/https://supchina.com/2020/12/16/how-kublai-khans-yuan-complicates-the-notion-of-china/|url-status=live}}</ref> As such, Sayyid Ajall would be the one to introduce [[Confucian education]], [[Confucian ritual religion|rituals]], and traditions into Yunnan, including Chinese social structures, [[Chinese funeral rituals|funeral rituals]], and [[Traditional Chinese marriage|marriage customs]].<ref name="SAYYED AJALL" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA477|title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300)|series=Asiatische Forschungen: Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1993|isbn=3447033398|editor-last=Rachewiltz|editor-first=Igor de|volume=121|page=477|issn=0571-320X|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514030252/https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&pg=PA477|archive-date=14 May 2016|url-status=live }}</ref> He would go on to construct numerous Confucian temples throughout his reign.<ref name="Silk Road p116">{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Xinru|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXhhkvOULHsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA116|title=The Silk Road in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=019979880X|page=116|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035028/https://books.google.com/books?id=xXhhkvOULHsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA116#v=snippet&q=yunnan%20sayyid%20mongols%20prince&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA476|title=In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300)|series=Asiatische Forschungen: Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- und Zentralasiens|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1993|isbn=3447033398|editor-last=Rachewiltz|editor-first=Igor de|volume=121|page=476|issn=0571-320X|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035029/https://books.google.com/books?id=kG45gi7E3hsC&q=yunnan+sayyid+mongols+prince&pg=PA476#v=snippet&q=yunnan%20sayyid%20mongols%20prince&f=false|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Groups – china.org.cn|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hui.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202065243/http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hui.htm|archive-date=2014-12-02|access-date=2014-08-16|website=www.china.org.cn}}</ref>

Confucian rituals were taught to students in newly founded schools by [[Sichuanese people|Sichuanese]] scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Bin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=pioneered+salary+school+kunming|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0231142540|page=154|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035029/https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=pioneered+salary+school+kunming|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Yang 2008">{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Bin|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0231142540|chapter=Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese|access-date=24 April 2014|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/yang/pdf/yang-chapter5.pdf|archive-date=23 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323041235/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/yang/pdf/yang-chapter5.pdf|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> The natives of Yunnan were instructed by Sayyid Ajall in such Confucian ceremonies as weddings, matchmaking, funerals, ancestor worship, and kowtow. The native leaders had their "barbarian" clothing replaced by clothing given to them by Sayyid Ajall as well.<ref name="Yang 2008" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Bin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=For+instance%2C+Sayyid%27Ajall+Shams+Al-Din+taught+indigenous+peoples+to+perform+the+Confucian+rituals+of+kneeling+%28kowtow%29%2C+matchmaking+for+marriage%2C+marriage+ceremonies%2C+funerals%2C+and+ancestral+worship.+He+also+presented+native+chieftains+with+clothes%2C+hats%2C+socks%2C+and+shoes+to+replace+their+%22barbarian%22+dress.|title=Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0231142540|page=157|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927035033/https://books.google.com/books?id=CZQMAQAAMAAJ&q=For+instance%2C+Sayyid%27Ajall+Shams+Al-Din+taught+indigenous+peoples+to+perform+the+Confucian+rituals+of+kneeling+%28kowtow%29%2C+matchmaking+for+marriage%2C+marriage+ceremonies%2C+funerals%2C+and+ancestral+worship.+He+also+presented+native+chieftains+with+clothes%2C+hats%2C+socks%2C+and+shoes+to+replace+their+%22barbarian%22+dress.|url-status=live}}</ref> The governor was praised and described as making "the orangutans and butcherbirds become unicorns and phoenixes and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps" by [[He Hongzuo]], the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thant Myint-U|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238|title=Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia|publisher=Macmillan|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4668-0127-1|quote=claimed descent from the emir of Bokhara&nbsp;... and was appointed as the top administrator in Yunnan in the 1270s. Today the Muslims of Yunnan regard him as the founder of their community, a wise and benevolent ruler who 'pacified and comforted' the peoples of Yunnan. Sayyid Ajall was officially the Director of Political Affairs of the Regional Secretariat of Yunnan&nbsp;... According to Chinese records, he introduced new agricultural technologies, constructed irrigation systems, and tried to raise living standards. Though a Muslims, he built or rebuilt Confucian temples and created a Confucian education system. His contemporary, He Hongzuo, the Regional Superintendent of Confucian studies, wrote that through his efforts 'the orangutans and butcherbirds became unicorns and phonixes<!--spell check--> and their felts and furs were exchanged for gowns and caps'&nbsp;...|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238#v=onepage&q=nasr%20al%20din%20yunnan&f=false|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref>

Sayyid Ajall would also be the first to bring Islam to the area, and thus the widespread presence of Islam in Yunnan is credited to his work.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Th Houtsma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rezD7rvuf9YC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PA847|title=First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936|publisher=BRILL|year=1993|isbn=90-04-09796-1|page=847|quote=Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi: he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040057/https://books.google.com/books?id=rezD7rvuf9YC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PA847#v=onepage&q=nasr%20al%20din%20yunnan&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Both [[Marco Polo]] and [[Rashid al-Din Vatvat]] recorded that Yunnan was heavily populated by Muslims during the Yuan dynasty, with Rashid naming a city with all Muslim inhabitants as the "great city of Yachi."<ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=al+din+yachi+exclusively+prominent|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|year=1986|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|publisher=The Institute|page=174|quote=from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=al+din+yachi+exclusively+prominent|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been suggested that Yachi was [[Dali City]] (''Ta-li''), which had many Hui people.<ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=when+early+al+din+yachi+exclusively+ta-li+centre+though|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|year=1986|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|publisher=The Institute|page=387|quote=when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" among the population while the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=when+early+al+din+yachi+exclusively+ta-li+centre+though|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sayyid Ajall's son [[Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)|Nasir al-Din]] became Governor of Yunnan in 1279 after his death.<ref>( ){{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238|title=Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia|year=2011|author=Thant Myint-U|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4668-0127-1|quote=In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for give years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence.|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040058/https://books.google.com/books?id=FE9taNzMa5IC&q=nasr+al+din+yunnan&pg=PT238#v=onepage&q=nasr%20al%20din%20yunnan&f=false|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref><ref>(Original from the University of Virginia) {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=son+Nasir|title=Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7–8|year=1986|author=Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmi'at al-Malik 'Abd al-'Azīz. Ma'had Shu'ūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah|publisher=The Institute|page=385|quote=On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. While Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the|access-date=December 20, 2011|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040059/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FFTAAAAYAAJ&q=son+Nasir|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historian Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein has written on Sayyid Ajall's confucianization and sinicization policies in various papers, including in her dissertation "Sayyid 'Ajall Shams al-Din: A Muslim from Central Asia, serving the Mongols in China, and bringing 'civilization' to Yunnan" (1997);<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_dis_History.html|title="CESWW" – Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies – History|website=cesww.fas.harvard.edu|access-date=2014-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825130022/http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_dis_History.html|archive-date=2014-08-25|url-status=live}}</ref> and in "The Origins of Confucian and Islamic Education in Southwest China: Yunnan in the Yuan Period" (n.d.)<ref>{{cite web|title=Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan|url=https://www.asian-studies.org/absts/1998abst/china/c8.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715144153/https://www.asian-studies.org/absts/1998abst/china/c8.htm|archive-date=2015-07-15|access-date=2014-08-16}}</ref> and "The Sinicization and Confucianization in Chinese and Western Historiography of a Muslim from Bukhara Serving Under the Mongols in China" (1989).<ref>{{cite book|last=Gladney|first=Dru C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=armijo&pg=PA366|title=Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=1996|isbn=0674594975|series=Harvard East Asian Monographs 149|page=424|issn=0073-0483|access-date=24 April 2014|orig-year=1991|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040602/https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=armijo&pg=PA366#v=snippet&q=armijo&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Ming dynasty====
{{Main|Ming conquest of Yunnan|Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty}}
During the [[Ming conquest of Yunnan]] Chinese military soldiers were settled in Yunnan, and many married the native women.

====Qing dynasty====
The rulers of the [[Qing dynasty]] were [[Manchu people|ethnic Manchus]] who adopted the norms of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to justify their rule. The "orthodox" historical view emphasized the power of Han Chinese to "sinicize" their conquerors, although more recent research such as the [[New Qing History]] school revealed Manchu rulers were savvy in their manipulation of their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, the emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used [[Central Asia]]n models of rule as much as Confucian ones. There is also evidence of sinicization, however. For example, Manchus originally had their own separate style of naming from the Han Chinese, but eventually adopted Han Chinese naming practices.

[[Manchu name]]s consisted of more than the two or one syllable [[Chinese name]]s, and when phonetically transcribed into Chinese, they made no sense at all.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=famous Manchu figure of the early Qing who belonged to the Niohuru clan) would have been the unwieldy "Niu-gu-lu E-bi-long" in Chinese. Moreover, the characters used in names were typically chosen to represent the sounds of Manchu, and not to carry any particular meaning in Chinese. For educated Han Chinese accustomed to names composed of a familiar surname and one or two elegang characters drawn from a poem or a passage from the classics, Manchu names looked not just different, but absurd. What was oneo to make of a name like E-bi-long, written in Chinese characters meaning "repress-must flourish," or Duo-er-gun, meaning "numerous-thou-roll"? S.... To them they looked like nonsense.... But they are not nonsense in Manchu: "E-bi-long" is the transcription of ebilun, meaning "a delicate or sickly child," and "Duo-er-gun" is the Chinese transcription of dorgon, the Manchu word for badger.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA242|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=242|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012}}</ref> The meaning of the names that Manchus used were also very different from the meanings of Chinese names.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=Thus we find names like Nikan (Chinese), Ajige (little), Asiha (young), Haha (nale), Mampi (knot—a reference to the hair?), Kara (black), Fulata (red-eyed), Necin (peaceful), Kirsa (steppe fox), Unahan (colt), Jumara (squirrel), Nimašan (sea eagle), Nomin (lapis lazuli), and Gacuha (toy made out of an animal's anklebone).44 Names such as Jalfungga (long-lived), Fulingga (lucky one), Fulungga (majestic), and Hūturingga (fortunate), were not unknown, either, particularly after the seventeenth century. Although mightily foreign when written as Zha-la-feng-a, Fu-ling-a, Fu-long-a, or Hu-tu-ling-ga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA242|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=242|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012}}</ref> The Manchus also gave [[number]]s as personal names.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=While Chinese names, too, sometimes ended in characters with the sounds "zhu," "bao," and "tai," more often than not, such names in the Qing belonged to Manchus and other bannermen (Chinese bannermen and Mongols sometimes took Manchu-sounding names), even if the attached meaning is not clear (it is not certain that all names in fact had a specific meaning). Giving "numeral names" was another unique Manchu habit. These were names that actually referred to numbers. Sometimes they were given using Manchu numbers—for example, Nadanju (seventy) or Susai (fifty). Other times number names used the Manchu transcriptions of Chinese numbers, as in the name Loišici (= Liushi qi, "sixty-seven"), Bašinu (= bashi wu, "eight-five").45 Such names, unheard of among the Han, were quite common among the Manchus, an appeared from time to time among Chinese bannermen. Popular curiosity about this odd custom in Qing was partly satisfied by the nineteenth-century bannerman-writer Fu-ge, who explained in his book of "jottings" that naming children for their grandparents' ages was a way of wishing longevity to the newly born.46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA243|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=243|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080620/http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA243|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historical records report that as early as 1776, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] was shocked to see a high Manchu official, [[Guo'ermin]], not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now [[Shenyang]]).<ref>Yu Hsiao-jung, [http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/diaporamas/yu2.pdf Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619102136/http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/diaporamas/yu2.pdf |date=19 June 2013 }}</ref> By the 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The [[Jiaqing Emperor]] (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu.<ref name="rhoads">Edward J. M. Rhoads, ''Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928.'' University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54. {{ISBN|0-295-98040-0}}. Partially available [https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C on Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927040544/https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C |date=2023-09-27 }}</ref>

Eventually, the Qing royal family (the [[Aisin Gioro]]) gave their children Chinese names, which were separate from the Manchu names, and even adopted the Chinese practice of [[generation name]]s, although its usage was inconsistent and error-ridden. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Manchu royal family stopped using Manchu names.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=At Xiuyan, in eastern Fengtian, the Manchus in the seventh or eighth generation continued as before to give their sons polysyllabic Manchu personal names that were meaningless when transliterated into Chinese, but at the same time they began to also give them Chinese names that were disyllabic and meaningful and that conformed to the generational principle. Thus, in the seventh generation of the Gūwalgiya lineage were sons with two names, one Manchu and one Chinese, such as Duolunbu/Shiman, Delinbu/Shizhu, and Tehengbu/Shizhen. Within the family and the banner, these boys used their Manchu name, but outside they used their Han-style name. Then, from the eighth or ninth generation one, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Gūwalgiya at Xiuyan stopped giving polysyllabic Manchu names to their sons, who thereafter used Chinese names exclusively.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|page=56|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080701/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Niohuru]] family of the Manchu changed their family name to [[Lang (Chinese surname)|Lang]], which sounded like "wolf" in Chinese, since wolf in Manchu was Niohuru; thus forming a translation.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=and when the ancient and politically prominent Manchu lineage of Niohuru adopted the Han-style surname Lang, he ridiculed them for having "forgotten their roots." (The Niohuru, whose name was derived from niohe, Manchu for wolf," had chosen Lang as their surname because it was a homophone for the Chinese word for "wolf.")|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|page=56|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080701/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although the Manchus replaced their Manchu names with Chinese personal names, the [[Eight Banners|Manchu bannermen]] followed their traditional practice in typically used their first/personal name to address themselves and not their last name, while Han Chinese bannermen used their last name and first in normal Chinese style.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=Manchu men had abandoned their original polysyllabic personal names infavor of Han-style disyllabic names; they had adopted the Han practice of choosing characters with auspicious meanings for the names; and they had assigned names on a generational basis.... Except among some Hanjun such as the two Zhao brothers, bannermen still did not, by and large, use their|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|page=56|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080701/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA56|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|quote=family name but called themselves only by their personal name—for example, Yikuang, Ronglu, Gangyi, Duanfang, Xiliang, and Tieliang. In this respect, most Manchus remained conspicuously different from Han.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA57|page=57|title=Manchus & Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861–1928|edition=reprint, illustrated|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|access-date=March 2, 2012|isbn=9780295804125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105080808/http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA57|archive-date=January 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Usage of surnames was not traditional to the Manchu while it was to the Han Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|quote=Chinese names consist typically of a single-character surname and a given name of one or two characters, the latter usually chosen for their auspicious meaning. Manchu names were different. For one thing, Manchus did not commonly employ surnames, identifying themselves usually by their banner affiliation rather than by their lineage. Even if they had customarily used both surname and given name, this would not have eliminated the difference with Han names, since Manchu names of any kind were very often longer than two characters—that is, two syllables— in length. Where a Han name (to pick at random two names from the eighteenth century) might read Zhang Tingyu or Dai Zhen, the full name of, say, Ebilun (a|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA241|isbn=0-8047-4684-2|page=241|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|edition=illustrated, reprint|author=Mark C. Elliott|access-date=March 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231223407/http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA241|archive-date=December 31, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Nguyễn dynasty (Vietnam)====
{{Main|Sinicization of Vietnam}}
The Vietnamese Nguyễn emperor [[Minh Mạng]] sinicized ethnic minorities such as [[Khmer people|Khmers]], [[Chams]] and [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnards]], claimed the legacy of [[Vietnamese philosophy#Confucianism in Vietnam|Confucianism]] and China's Han dynasty for Vietnam.<ref name="Owen2005">{{cite book|author=Norman G. Owen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=py5Xh0-pw18C&q=minh+mang+han&pg=PA115|title=The Emergence Of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8248-2890-5|pages=115–|access-date=2020-10-14|archive-date=2023-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927041045/https://books.google.com/books?id=py5Xh0-pw18C&q=minh+mang+han&pg=PA115#v=snippet&q=minh%20mang%20han&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Directing his policies at the Khmers and [[hill tribes]],<ref name="PeerenboomPetersen2006">{{cite book|author1=Randall Peerenboom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2j6GNiMMc1oC&q=kinh+people+of+capital&pg=PA474|title=Human Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Study of Twelve Asian Jurisdictions, France and the USA|author2=Carole J. Petersen|author3=Albert H.Y. Chen|date=27 September 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-23881-1|pages=474–|access-date=14 October 2020|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927041046/https://books.google.com/books?id=2j6GNiMMc1oC&q=kinh+people+of+capital&pg=PA474#v=snippet&q=kinh%20people%20of%20capital&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Minh Mang declared that "We must hope that their barbarian habits will be subconsciously dissipated, and that they will daily become more infected by Han [Sino-Vietnamese] customs."<ref name="Moses2008">{{cite book|author=A. Dirk Moses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&q=minh+mang+han&pg=PA209|title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-452-4|pages=209–|access-date=14 October 2020|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927041144/https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&q=minh+mang+han&pg=PA209#v=snippet&q=minh%20mang%20han&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Moreover, he would use the term ''Han'' ({{Linktext|漢人}}) to refer to the Vietnamese people,<ref name="Owen2005" /> and the name {{Langx|vi|{{linktext|Trung Quốc}}|label=none}} (中國, the same [[Chinese characters]] as for 'China') to refer to Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=H-Net Discussion Networks – FW: H-ASIA: Vietnam as "Zhongguo" (2 REPLIES)|url=http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-asia&month=9906&week=e&msg=28mq4qDZEWt3sD%2B6t6h%2Flw&user=&pw=|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031103133/http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-asia&month=9906&week=e&msg=28mq4qDZEWt3sD%2B6t6h%2Flw&user=&pw=|archive-date=2018-10-31|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref> Likewise, the lord [[Nguyễn Phúc Chu]] had referred to Vietnamese as ''Han'' people in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://kyotoreview.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/issue/issue4/article_353.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040617071243/http://kyotoreview.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/issue/issue4/article_353.html | archive-date=2004-06-17 | title=Vietnam-Champa Relations and the Malay-Islam Regional Network in the 17th–19th Centuries}}</ref>

Chinese clothing was also adopted by the Vietnamese people. Variations of them are still being used today.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://angelasancartier.net/ao-dai-vietnams-national-dress | title=Angelasancartier.net | access-date=2016-02-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121182241/http://angelasancartier.net/ao-dai-vietnams-national-dress | archive-date=2016-01-21 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://beyondvictoriana.com/2010/03/14/beyond-victoriana-18-transcultural-tradition-of-the-vietnamese-ao-dai/|title = #18 Transcultural Tradition of the Vietnamese Ao Dai|date = 2010-03-14|access-date = 2016-02-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100323122205/http://beyondvictoriana.com/2010/03/14/beyond-victoriana-18-transcultural-tradition-of-the-vietnamese-ao-dai/|archive-date = 2010-03-23|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://fashion-history.lovetoknow.com/clothing-types-styles/ao-dai | title=Ao Dai | access-date=2016-02-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204032753/http://fashion-history.lovetoknow.com/clothing-types-styles/ao-dai | archive-date=2016-02-04 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.tor.com/2010/10/20/ao-dai-and-i-steampunk-essay/|title = The Ao Dai and I: A Personal Essay on Cultural Identity and Steampunk|date = 2010-10-20|access-date = 2016-02-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160307004314/http://www.tor.com/2010/10/20/ao-dai-and-i-steampunk-essay/|archive-date = 2016-03-07|url-status = live}}</ref>