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==== Civil rights movement ==== {{Main|Civil rights movement|Sit-in movement}} The [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]] (FOR) and the [[Congress of Racial Equality]] (CORE) conducted sit-ins as early as the 1940s. Ernest Calloway refers to [[Bernice Fisher]] as "Godmother of the restaurant 'sit-in' technique."<ref>"Of Time and Sound, Requiem For A Free, Compassionate Spirit", by Ernest Galloway, published in ''Missouri Teamster'', May 12, 1966, Page 7.</ref> In August 1939, African-American attorney [[Samuel Wilbert Tucker]] organized the [[Alexandria Library sit-in]] at the then [[Racial segregation in the United States|racially segregated]] library.<ref>{{cite web|title=America's First Sit-Down Strike: The 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In|url=http://oha.alexandriava.gov/bhrc/lessons/bh-lesson2_reading2.html|publisher=City of Alexandria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528015924/http://oha.alexandriava.gov/bhrc/lessons/bh-lesson2_reading2.html|archive-date=May 28, 2010|access-date=August 24, 2016}}</ref> [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]] (CIO) labor delegates had a brief, spontaneous [[lunch counter]] sit-in during their 1947 [[Columbus, Ohio]] convention.<ref>(''NYT'' March 17, 1947: 16)</ref> In one of the earliest use of sit-ins against racism, followers of [[Father Divine]] and the [[International Peace Mission Movement]] joined with the Cafeteria [[Labor unions in the United States|Workers Union]], Local 302, in September 1939 to protest racially unfair hiring practices at New York's Shack Sandwich Shops, Inc. According to ''[[The New York Times]]'' for September 23, 1939,<ref>{{cite news|title=Divine's Followers Give Aid to Strikers: With Evangelist's Sanction They 'Sit Down' in Restaurant|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 23, 1939|id={{ProQuest|103043251}}}}</ref> on Thursday between 75 and 100 followers showed up at the restaurant at Forty-first Street and [[Lexington Avenue]], where most of the [[Strike action|strike]] activity has been concentrated, and groups went into the place, purchased five-cent cups of coffee, and conducted what might be described as a kind of customers' nickel sit down strike. Other patrons were unable to find seats.<ref>{{cite news |title=Divine's Followers Give Aid to Strikers; With Evangelist's Sanction They 'Sit Down' in Restaurant |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A17FA3B54107A93C1AB1782D85F4D8385F9 |work=The New York Times |location=US |date=September 23, 1939 |access-date=July 20, 2010 }}</ref> In May 1942, [[James Farmer Jr.]], an organizer for the Fellowship of Reconciliation, led a group of 27 people to protest the racially discriminatory no-service policy of the Jack Spratt Diner on 47th Street in [[Chicago]]. Each seating area at the diner was taken by groups that included at least one black person. The peaceful patrons, several from the campus of the nearby [[University of Chicago]], then tried to order; all were refused. The police were called, but when they arrived they told the management that no laws were being broken, so no arrests were made. The diner closed for the night but thereafter, according to periodic checks made by CORE activists, it no longer enforced its discriminatory policy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Birth of the sit-in |newspaper=Chicago Tribune | date=February 24, 2014 | author=Grossman, Ron | page=17}}</ref> With the encouragement of [[Melvin B. Tolson]] and Farmer, students from [[Wiley College|Wiley]] and [[Bishop College|Bishop]] Colleges organized the first sit-in in Texas in the rotunda of the [[Old Harrison County Courthouse (Texas)|Harrison County Courthouse]] in [[Marshall, Texas|Marshall]]. This sit-in directly challenged the oldest [[White Citizens Parties|White Citizens Party]] in Texas and would culminate in the reversal of [[Jim Crow laws]] in the state and the [[desegregation]] of postgraduate studies in Texas by the ''[[Sweatt v. Painter]]'' (1950) verdict. Sit-ins are often recognized for illuminating the goals of the movement in a way that young people were also able to participate in.<ref>{{Citation |last=Schmidt |first=Christopher W. |title=The Sit-In Movement |date=2018-07-30 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-445 |access-date=2024-07-29 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.445 |isbn=978-0-19-932917-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sit-ins were an integral part of the nonviolent strategy of civil disobedience and mass protests that eventually led to passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] which ended legally sanctioned racial segregation in the United States and also passage of the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] that struck down many racially motivated barriers used to deny voting rights to non-whites.
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