Editing Skyscraper (section)

===Modern skyscrapers===
[[File:Abu Dhabi – Corniche 3 - أبو ظبي - الكورنيش - panoramio.jpg|thumb| Skyscrapers and buildings in  (Abu Dhabi, Middle East)]]
Modern skyscrapers are built with [[steel]] or [[reinforced concrete]] frameworks and [[curtain wall (architecture)|curtain wall]]s of [[glass]] or [[polished stone]]. They use mechanical equipment such as [[water pump]]s and [[elevator]]s. Since the 1960s, according to the CTBUH (Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat) the skyscraper has been reoriented away from a symbol for [[North America]]n corporate power to instead communicate a city or nation's place in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ctbuh2019.com/other-info/50-influential-buildings/ |title=The 50 Most Influential Tall Buildings of the Last 50 Years |publisher=CTBUH |access-date=10 October 2019 |archive-date=10 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010160716/https://ctbuh2019.com/other-info/50-influential-buildings/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| image1 = Main building of Moscow State University 2009-07 1246853251.jpg
| image2 = Palace of Culture and Science seen, Warsaw, Poland 2019.jpg
| image3 = Hotel International Prague (IMG 0160).jpg
| total_width = 400
| header = Stalinist skyscrapers
| caption1 = [[Main building of Moscow State University]] (1953), in [[Moscow]]
| caption2 = [[Palace of Culture and Science]] (1955), in [[Warsaw]]
| caption3 = [[Grand Hotel International Prague|Grand Hotel International]] (1956), in [[Prague]]
}}

The construction of very tall skyscrapers entered a three-decades-long era of stagnation in 1930 due to the [[Great Depression]] and then [[World War&nbsp;II]]. Shortly after the war ended, Russia began construction on a series of skyscrapers in [[Moscow]]. Seven, dubbed the "[[Seven Sisters (Moscow)|Seven Sisters]]", were built between 1947 and 1953; and one, the [[Main building of Moscow State University]], was the tallest building in Europe for nearly four decades (1953–1990). Other skyscrapers in the style of [[Stalinist architecture|Socialist Classicism]] were erected in East Germany ([[Frankfurter Tor]]), Poland ([[Palace of Culture and Science|PKiN]]), Ukraine ([[Hotel Ukrayina|Hotel Moscow]]), Latvia ([[Latvian Academy of Sciences|Academy of Sciences]]), and other [[Eastern Bloc]] countries. [[Western Europe]]an countries also began to permit taller skyscrapers during the years immediately following World War II. Early examples include [[Edificio España]] (Spain) and [[Torre Breda]] (Italy).

From the 1930s onward, skyscrapers began to appear in various cities in [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]] as well as in [[Latin America]]. Finally, they also began to be constructed in cities in [[Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[Oceania]] from the late 1950s.

Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the classical designs of the [[early skyscrapers]], instead embracing the uniform [[International Style (architecture)|international style]]; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished—such as New York's [[Singer Building]], once the world's tallest skyscraper.

German-American architect [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century. He conceived the glass façade skyscraper<ref>{{cite book|year=2006|title=A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarch00curl_0|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarch00curl_0/page/880 880]|isbn=978-0-19-860678-9}}</ref> and, along with Norwegian [[Fred Severud]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Seven Structural Engineers: The Felix Candela Lectures |publisher=Museum of Modern Art |author=Nordenson, Guy |year=2008 |location=New York City |page=21 |isbn=978-0870707032}}</ref> designed the [[Seagram Building]] in 1958, a skyscraper that is often regarded as the pinnacle of modernist high-rise architecture.<ref name=obit>{{cite news |title=Mies van der Rohe Dies at 83; Leader of Modern Architecture |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0327.html |quote=Mies van der Rohe, one of the great figures of 20th-century architecture. |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 August 1969 |access-date=21 July 2007}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| image1 = UNO New York.JPG
| image2 = Seagram Building (35098307116) (cropped).jpg
| image3 = Biurowiec Chałubińskiego 8 w Warszawie 2020 (cropped).jpg
| total_width = 400
| header = Postwar modernist skyscrapers
| caption1 = [[UN Secretariat Building]] (1952), in New York City
| caption2 = [[Seagram Building]] (1958), in New York City
| caption3 = [[Chałubińskiego 8]] (1978), in [[Warsaw]]
}}

Skyscraper construction surged throughout the 1960s. The impetus behind the upswing was a series of transformative innovations<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|author=Lynn Beadle|title=Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5yfoPpVhmUC&pg=PA482|date=2001|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-46754-1|page=482}}</ref> which made it possible for people to live and work in "cities in the sky".<ref name =lehigh>{{cite web|url=https://www1.lehigh.edu/news/designing-cities-sky |title=Designing cities in the sky |publisher=lehigh.edu |date=14 March 2007 }}</ref>

[[File:FR_khan_sculputure_at_Sears_tower.jpg|right|thumb|Sculpture honoring [[Fazlur Rahman Khan]] at the [[Willis Tower]] in Chicago. Khan made important advancements in skyscraper engineering.<ref>{{cite web |title=15 Genius Skyscraper Engineers You've Probably Never Heard Of |url=https://interestingengineering.com/culture/15-genius-skyscraper-engineers-youve-probably-never-heard-of |website=amp.interestingengineering.com|date=27 January 2018 }}</ref>]]

In the early 1960s [[Bangladeshi-American]] structural engineer [[Fazlur Rahman Khan]], considered the "father of [[Tube (structure)|tubular designs]]" for high-rises,<ref>{{cite book |title=Engineering Legends|first=Richard|last=Weingardt|publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers|ASCE Publications]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7844-0801-8|page=75}}</ref> discovered that the dominating rigid [[steel frame]] structure was not the only system apt for tall buildings, marking a new era of skyscraper construction in terms of multiple [[structural system]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mir M. Ali|first=Kyoung Sun Moon|title=Structural developments in tall buildings: current trends and future prospects|journal=Architectural Science Review|issue=September 2007|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-32962093_ITM|access-date=10 December 2008}}</ref> His central innovation in [[skyscraper design and construction]] was the concept of the [[Tube (structure)|"tube" structural system]], including the "framed tube", "trussed tube", and "bundled tube".<ref name=Ali>{{cite journal|title=Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers: from Ingalls to Jin mao|first=Mir M.|last=Ali|journal=Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering|volume=1|issue=1|year=2001|pages=2–14|doi=10.56748/ejse.1111|s2cid=251690475|doi-access=free}}</ref> His "tube concept", using all the exterior wall perimeter structure of a building to simulate a thin-walled tube, revolutionized tall building design.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Engineering Legends|first=Richard|last=Weingardt|publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers|ASCE Publications]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7844-0801-8|page=76}}</ref> These systems allow greater economic efficiency,<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Alfred Swenson & Pao-Chi Chang|title=Building construction: High-rise construction since 1945|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|year=2008|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/83859/building-construction/60143/High-rise-construction-since-1945#toc60143|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> and also allow skyscrapers to take on various shapes, no longer needing to be rectangular and box-shaped.<ref name=Bayley/> The first building to employ the tube structure was the [[Plaza on DeWitt|Chestnut De-Witt]] apartment building,<ref name="books.google.com"/> considered to be a major development in modern architecture.<ref name="books.google.com"/> These new designs opened an economic door for contractors, engineers, architects, and investors, providing vast amounts of real estate space on minimal plots of land.<ref name = lehigh/> Over the next fifteen years, many towers were built by Fazlur Rahman Khan and the "[[Chicago School (architecture)|Second Chicago School]]",<ref name=Billington>{{Cite book|title=The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of Structural Engineering|first=David P.|last=Billington|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1985|isbn=978-0-691-02393-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/towerbridgenewar00bill/page/234 234–5]|url=https://archive.org/details/towerbridgenewar00bill/page/234}}</ref> including the hundred-story [[John Hancock Center]] and the massive {{convert|442|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Willis Tower]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id=101030&bt=9&ht=3&sro=81 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301234410/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id=101030&bt=9&ht=3&sro=81 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=1 March 2007 |title=List of Tallest skyscrapers in Chicago |publisher=Emporis.com |date=15 June 2009 |access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> Other pioneers of this field include [[Srinivasa 'Hal' Iyengar|Hal Iyengar]], [[William LeMessurier]], and [[Minoru Yamasaki]], the architect of the [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]].

Many buildings designed in the 1970s lacked a particular style and recalled ornamentation from earlier buildings designed before the 1950s. These design plans ignored the environment and loaded structures with decorative elements and extravagant finishes.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyjMBQAAQBAJ&q=fazlur+khan+legacy+towers+of+the+future&pg=PA3|title=Life-Cycle and Sustainability of Civil Infrastructure Systems: Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Life-Cycle Civil Engineering (IALCCE'12), Vienna, Austria, October 3-6, 2012|isbn=9780203103364|last1=Strauss|first1=Alfred|last2=Frangopol|first2=Dan|last3=Bergmeister|first3=Konrad|date=18 September 2012|publisher=CRC Press }}</ref> This approach to design was opposed by Fazlur Khan and he considered the designs to be whimsical rather than rational. Moreover, he considered the work to be a waste of precious natural resources.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyjMBQAAQBAJ&q=Ignored+the+environment+and+loaded&pg=PA3|title=Life-Cycle and Sustainability of Civil Infrastructure Systems: Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Life-Cycle Civil Engineering (IALCCE'12), Vienna, Austria, October 3-6, 2012|isbn=9780203103364|last1=Strauss|first1=Alfred|last2=Frangopol|first2=Dan|last3=Bergmeister|first3=Konrad|date=18 September 2012|publisher=CRC Press }}</ref> Khan's work promoted [[Structural Art|structures integrated with architecture]] and the least use of material resulting in the smallest impact on the environment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ialcce2012.boku.ac.at/keynote_details.php?profile=5|title=IALCCE 2012: Keynote Speakers Details|website=ialcce2012.boku.ac.at|access-date=16 June 2012|archive-date=26 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426000301/https://ialcce2012.boku.ac.at/keynote_details.php?profile=5|url-status=dead}}</ref> The next era of skyscrapers will focus on the environment including performance of structures, types of material, construction practices, absolute minimal use of materials/natural resources, embodied energy within the structures, and more importantly, a holistically integrated building systems approach.<ref name="auto"/>

{{Multiple image
| image1 = 01-01-2014 - Messeturm - trade fair tower - Frankfurt- Germany - 01 (cropped).jpg
| image2 = The Twins SE Asia 2019 (49171985716) (cropped) 2.jpg
| image3 = Jin Mao Tower 2007.jpg
| total_width = 400
| header = [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodern]] skyscrapers
| caption1 = [[Messeturm]] (1990), in [[Frankfurt]]
| caption2 = [[Petronas Towers]] (1998), in [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| caption3 = [[Jin Mao Tower]] (1999), in [[Shanghai]]
}}

Modern building practices regarding supertall structures have led to the study of "vanity height".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctbuh.org/Publications/Journal/InNumbers/TBINVanityHeight/tabid/5837/language/en-US/Default.aspx |title=Tall Buildings in Numbers Vanity Height |publisher=Ctbuh.org |access-date=21 September 2013 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117120309/http://www.ctbuh.org/Publications/Journal/InNumbers/TBINVanityHeight/tabid/5837/language/en-US/Default.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.showbriefdetail&newsid=2061 |title=CTBUH releases list of supertall towers with highest percentages of 'vanity height' |publisher=World Architecture News |access-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> Vanity height, according to the CTBUH, is the distance between the highest floor and its architectural top (excluding antennae, flagpole or other functional extensions). Vanity height first appeared in New York City skyscrapers as early as the 1920s and 1930s but supertall buildings have relied on such uninhabitable extensions for on average 30% of their height, raising potential definitional and sustainability issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theatlanticcities.com/design/2013/09/most-worlds-tallest-buildings-game-system-vanity-height/6822/ |title=Most of the World's Tallest Buildings Game the System With 'Vanity Height' – Jenny Xie |work=The Atlantic Cities |date=9 September 2013 |access-date=21 September 2013 |archive-date=25 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425073754/http://www.theatlanticcities.com/design/2013/09/most-worlds-tallest-buildings-game-system-vanity-height/6822/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Lecher |first=Colin |url=http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-09/worlds-tallest-skyscrapers-have-insane-amount-unoccupied-space |title=The World's Tallest Skyscrapers Have A Dirty Little Secret |date=6 September 2013 |publisher=Popsci.com |access-date=21 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/height-uselessness-article-1.1448935 |title=World's tallest {{sic|skyscapers?|nolink==y}} Only if 'useless' needles count |work=NY Daily News |date=7 September 2013 |access-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> The current era of skyscrapers focuses on [[sustainability]], its built and natural environments, including the performance of structures, types of materials, construction practices, absolute minimal use of materials and natural resources, energy within the structure, and a holistically integrated building systems approach. [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] is a current [[green building]] standard.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alfred Strauss|author2=Dan Frangopol|author3=Konrad Bergmeister|title=Life-Cycle and Sustainability of Civil Infrastructure Systems: Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Life-Cycle Civil Engineering (IALCCE'12), Vienna, Austria, October 3-6, 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyjMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA406|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-10336-4}}</ref>

Architecturally, with the movements of [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodernism]], [[New Urbanism]] and [[New Classical Architecture]], that established since the 1980s, a more classical approach came back to global skyscraper design, that remains popular today.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Adam|first1=Robert|title=How to Build Skyscrapers|url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/12_2_urbanities-how_to_build.html|magazine=City Journal|access-date=20 September 2014|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923222052/http://www.city-journal.org/html/12_2_urbanities-how_to_build.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Examples are the [[Wells Fargo Center (Minneapolis)|Wells Fargo Center]], [[NBC Tower]], [[Parkview Square]], [[30 Park Place]], the [[Messeturm]], the iconic [[Petronas Towers]] and [[Jin Mao Tower]].

{{Multiple image
| image1 = The Shard from the Sky Garden 2015.jpg
| image2 = New York (33224081040).jpg
| image3 = Shanghai Tower 2015.jpg
| total_width = 400
| header = Contemporary skyscrapers
| caption1 = [[The Shard]] (2012), in [[London]]
| caption2 = [[One World Trade Center]] (2013), in New York City
| caption3 = [[Shanghai Tower]] (2014), in Shanghai
}}

Other contemporary styles and movements in skyscraper design include [[Organic architecture|organic]], [[Sustainable architecture|sustainable]], [[Neo-Futurism|neo-futurist]], [[Structuralism (architecture)|structuralist]], [[High-tech architecture|high-tech]], [[Deconstructivism|deconstructivist]], [[Blobitecture|blob]], [[Digital architecture|digital]], [[Streamline Moderne|streamline]], [[Novelty architecture|novelty]], [[Critical regionalism|critical regionalist]], [[Vernacular architecture|vernacular]], [[Art Deco|Neo Art Deco]] and [[neohistorist]], also known as [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist]].

3 September is the global commemorative day for skyscrapers, called "Skyscraper Day".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Whitman |first1=Elizabeth |title=Skyscraper Day 2015: 10 Facts, Photos Celebrating Ridiculously Tall Buildings Around The World|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/skyscraper-day-2015-10-facts-photos-celebrating-ridiculously-tall-buildings-around-2080286|work=[[International Business Times]] |date=3 September 2015 |access-date=3 September 2015}}</ref>

New York City developers competed among themselves, with successively taller buildings claiming the title of "world's tallest" in the 1920s and early 1930s, culminating with the completion of the {{convert|318.9|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Chrysler Building]] in 1930 and the {{convert|443.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Empire State Building]] in 1931, the world's tallest building for forty years. The first completed {{convert|417|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] tower became the world's tallest building in 1972. However, it was overtaken by the Sears Tower (now [[Willis Tower]]) in Chicago within two years. The {{convert|442|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall Sears Tower stood as the world's tallest building for 24 years, from 1974 until 1998, until it was edged out by {{convert|452|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Petronas Twin Towers]] in Kuala Lumpur, which held the title for six years.