Editing Spectral bat (section)

==Biology and ecology==
===Diet===
[[File:Crotophaga sulcirostris.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[groove-billed ani]], one of the spectral bat's primary food sources]]
The spectral bat is exclusively [[carnivore|carnivorous]],<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.3161/1733-5329(2005)7[131:TGSOAL]2.0.CO;2| volume = 7| issue = 1| page=136| last1 = Giannini| first1 = Norberto P.| last2 = Kalko| first2 = Elisabeth K. V.| title = The guild structure of animalivorous leaf-nosed bats of Barro Colorado Island, Panama, revisited| journal = Acta Chiropterologica| date = 2005| s2cid = 85309649}}</ref> consuming [[bird]]s, [[rodent]]s, and other species of [[bat]]. Additionally, it consumes some [[insect]]s such as [[Coleoptera|beetles]].<ref name="Bonato 2004"/> It preys on other bats opportunistically, and it is known to eat bats out of researchers' [[mist net]]s. Prey species include the [[highland yellow-shouldered bat]], [[Geoffroy's tailless bat]], [[Pallas's long-tongued bat]], [[Carollia|short-tailed fruit bats]], the [[common vampire bat]], and [[Artibeus|fruit-eating bats]].<ref  name="Peterson 1969">{{cite journal|doi=10.1139/z69-025|title=Notes on Vampyrum spectrum, the false vampire bat, in Panama|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=47|pages=140–142|year=1969|last1=Peterson|first1=R. L|last2=Kirmse|first2=Peter}}</ref> It was once thought to supplement its diet with fruit, but a captive pair refused to eat any fruit over a 5-year period.<ref name="Greenhall 1968"/>  Its diet can be studied passively because it carries prey items back to its roost to consume, discarding unwanted parts such as bird feathers, bat wings, and rodent tails. Over the course of a year, 18 bird species were identified from feathers left under a roost in Costa Rica: based on the assemblage, it prefers non-[[passerine|perching]] bird species that weigh {{cvt|20-150|g|oz}}.<ref name="Vehrencamp 1977"/> However, a later study in Brazil determined that perching bird species were a majority of prey items.<ref name="Bonato 2004">{{cite journal|doi=10.1644/BWG-121|title=Food Habits of Bats of Subfamily Vampyrinae in Brazil|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=85|issue=4|pages=708|year=2004|last1=Bonato|first1=Vinícius|last2=Gomes Facure|first2=Kátia|last3=Uieda|first3=Wilson|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Columbidae|Doves]] and [[cuckoo]]s are frequently consumed&mdash;they represented over half the prey items documented in the Costa Rican study. Some prey species such as cuckoos, [[trogon]]s, and [[motmot]]s are known to have a strong odor, leading Vehrencamp et al. to hypothesize that spectral bats may rely on scent to locate prey. It also prefers prey that roost in groups, which may aid in detection. The [[groove-billed ani]], which both has a strong smell and roosts in groups, is a particularly common prey item, representing approximately 24-26 of the 86 prey items identified in the study. Other species identified included the [[Eupsittula canicularis|orange-fronted parakeet]], [[orange-chinned parakeet]], [[rufous-naped wren]], [[streak-backed oriole]], and [[scissor-tailed flycatcher]]. The largest prey species identified was the [[white-tipped dove]], which at {{cvt|150|g|oz}}, weighs almost as much as spectral bats. Because its prey items can be so large, it may only need to consume one bird every two or three nights to meet its caloric requirements. <ref name="Vehrencamp 1977">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1379995|jstor=1379995|title=Observations on the Foraging Behavior and Avian Prey of the Neotropical Carnivorous Bat, ''Vampyrum spectrum''|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=58|issue=4|pages=469|year=1977|last1=Vehrencamp|first1=S. L|last2=Stiles|first2=F. G|last3=Bradbury|first3=J. W|url=https://zenodo.org/record/8205064}}</ref>

===Foraging===
[[File:Spectral bat.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Taxidermied]] spectral bat "consuming" a mouse]]
The spectral bat uses [[animal echolocation#Bats|echolocation]] to navigate, creating short pulses of [[ultrasound]] at relatively low frequencies; its echolocation characteristics are suited for maneuvering around obstacles while flying low to the ground.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> Its foraging style has been compared to [[owl]]s; it likely uses its agile and maneuverable wings to hover as it plucks prey items off the ground or tree branches.<ref name="Peterson 1969"/> It stalks the prey and then lands on it from above, securing the prey by hooking it with its sharp thumb claws.<ref name="Morell 2018">{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/07/ancient-temple-reveals-secrets-of-mexicos-meat-eating-bats/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703153229/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/07/ancient-temple-reveals-secrets-of-mexicos-meat-eating-bats/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 3, 2018|title=Ancient Temple Reveals Secrets of Mexico's Meat-Eating Bats|last=Morell| first=Virginia|date=July 2018|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> It kills its prey by delivering a forceful bite to the skull.<ref name="Greenhall 1968">{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1378008|jstor=1378008|title=Notes on the Behavior of the False Vampire Bat|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=49|issue=2|pages=337–340|year=1968|last1=Greenhall|first1=Arthur M}}</ref> Relative to its size, its [[Bite force quotient|bite force]] is stronger than any [[Carnivora]]n.<ref name="Sharlene 2016"/> Its bite force is predicted to measure 80&ndash;100 [[Newton (unit)|Newtons]] based on its body size and canine teeth characteristics.<ref name="Freeman 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Freeman| first1= P. W.| last2= Lemen| first2= C. A.| year=2009| title= Puncture-Resistance of Gloves for Handling Bats| journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management| volume= 73| issue=7| pages= 1251–1254|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1117&context=museummammalogy| doi= 10.2193/2008-295| s2cid= 15877222| url-access= subscription}}</ref> It has been recorded as being attracted to the distress calls of smaller bats while hunting.<ref name="Reid 2009">{{cite book| last=Reid| first= F.| year=2009| title= A field guide to the mammals of Central America and Southeast Mexico| publisher= Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0195343229| pages=104–105}}</ref>

In a study of the wing [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] of 51 [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] bat species, the spectral bat had the lowest [[wing loading]] (body mass to wing area ratio) at 20.05.<ref name="Marinello 2014">{{cite journal|doi=10.1139/cjz-2013-0127|title=Wing morphology of Neotropical bats: A quantitative and qualitative analysis with implications for habitat use|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=92|issue=2|pages=141|year=2014|last1=Marinello|first1=M.M|last2=Bernard|first2=E|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263540593}}</ref> Low wing loading is [[Bat flight#Carnivory|advantageous for carnivorous bats]] because it allows them to pick up prey items from the ground and fly with them.<ref name="Norberg 1987">{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rstb.1987.0030 |title=Ecological Morphology and Flight in Bats (Mammalia; Chiroptera): Wing Adaptations, Flight Performance, Foraging Strategy and Echolocation |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=316 |issue=1179 |pages=335 |year=1987 |last1=Norberg |first1=U. M |last2=Rayner |first2=J. M. V |bibcode=1987RSPTB.316..335N |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252581662|doi-access= }}</ref> Its wing structure allows it to take flight in confined spaces and to carry heavy prey items, despite the bat's size. Males will carry prey back to their roosts to provision females and their pup.<ref name="Vehrencamp 1977"/>

===Reproduction and life cycle===
The spectral bat is one of an estimated 18 species of bat which are [[Monogamy in animals|monogamous]]. Additionally, it is one of two known species of bat where the males provide [[parental care]], the other being the [[yellow-winged bat]].<ref name="Crichton">{{cite book| last1=Crichton| first1= E. G.| last2=Krutzsch| first2= P. H.|year=2000| title= Reproductive biology of bats| url=https://archive.org/details/reproductivebiol00cric_666| url-access=limited| publisher= Academic Press|isbn=978-0080540535| pages=[https://archive.org/details/reproductivebiol00cric_666/page/n367 355]–356}}</ref> Males have relatively small [[testicle|testes]]&mdash;as a monogamous species, there is not generally [[sperm competition]], so males can save energy by producing less sperm.<ref name="Adams">{{cite book|last1=Adams| first1=Danielle M.| last2=Nicolay| first2=Christopher| last3=Wilkinson| first3=Gerald S. |editor1-last=Fleming|editor1-first=T. H.| editor2-last=Davalos| editor2-first=L.|editor3-last=Mello| editor3-first=M.|title=Phyllostomid bats, a unique mammalian radiation| chapter=Patterns of sexual dimorphism and mating systems| publisher=Chicago University Press| chapter-url=http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/Adamsetal2017.pdf}}</ref>

It is a [[seasonal breeder]], with females giving birth at the end of the dry season or the beginning of the rainy season.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> The litter size is one individual, with offspring called "pups."<ref name="Hayssen 1993">{{cite book |author=Hayssen, Virginia |author2=Ari van Tienhoven |author3=Ans van Tienhoven |name-list-style=amp |year=1993 |title=Asdell's Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction: a Compendium of Species-specific Data |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-1753-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/asdellspatternso00hays }}</ref> The mother is reportedly very attentive and gentle with her offspring. The male is often in attendance as well and will frequently sleep with both the female and their young completely wrapped up in his wings.<ref name="Greenhall 1968"/>
The extent of natural depredation upon spectral bats is unknown, but spectral bat remains were once documented in a [[western barn owl]] [[Pellet (ornithology)|pellet]] in [[Oaxaca]], Mexico.<ref name="Santos 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Santos-Moreno| first1= A.| last2= Alfaro Espinosa| first2= A. M.| year=2009| title= Mammalian prey of barn owl (Tyto alba) in southeastern Oaxaca, México| journal= Acta Zoológica Mexicana| volume=25| issue=1|url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0065-17372009000100012}}</ref>

Spectral bats roost independently or in small colonies of up to five individuals in hollow trees.<ref name="Navarro 1982"/> An examination of one colony of five individuals consisted of an adult male and female, a nursing pup, and a juvenile male and female. The juvenile male was estimated to be six months old; he was presumed to be the older offspring of the adults, while the female was also possibly their offspring.<ref name="Vehrencamp 1977"/> Though it was initially believed to only roost in trees, it was first documented using a cave as a roost in 2008. Its average lifespan is unknown; however, it is believed that the same individual roosted in a cave from 2008 until at least 2016 based on a unique ear pigmentation, making lifespans of at least 8 years possible. In captivity, one adult individual of uncertain initial age was maintained for 5.5 years.<ref name="Dinets 2017">{{cite journal|doi=10.1515/mammalia-2016-0038|title=Long-term cave roosting in the spectral bat (''Vampyrum spectrum'')|journal=Mammalia|volume=81|issue=5|year=2017|last1=Dinets
|first1=Vladimir|s2cid=89446862|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311862704}}</ref>