Editing Star and crescent (section)

===Classical antiquity===

====Greeks and Romans====
{{further information|Byzantium#Emblem}}

Many ancient Greek (classical and hellenistic) and Roman amulets which depict stars and crescent have been found.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Transformation of Greek Amulets in Roman Imperial Times |year= 2018 |publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press |author=  Christopher A. Faraone  |isbn= 978-0-8122-4935-4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti1NDwAAQBAJ| pages= 40–53}}</ref>

[[Mithradates VI Eupator]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] (r. 	120–63 BC) used an eight rayed star with a crescent moon as his emblem. 
McGing (1986)  notes the association of the star and crescent with Mithradates VI, discussing its appearance on his coins, and its survival in the coins of the Bosporan Kingdom where "[t]he star and crescent appear on Pontic royal coins from the time of Mithradates III and seem to have had oriental significance as a dynastic badge of the Mithridatic family, or the arms of the country of Pontus."<ref>B.C. McGing, ''The Foreign Policy of Mithradates VI Eupator, King of Pontus'', Brill, 1986, p 97</ref>
Several possible interpretations of the emblem have been proposed. In most of these, the "star" is taken to represent the Sun. The combination of the two symbols has been taken as representing Sun and Moon (and by extension Day and Night),  the Zoroastrian ''[[Mah]]'' and ''[[Mithra]]'',<ref>"The star and the crescent, the emblem of the Pontus and its kings, were introduced by Mithradates and his successors to the Bosporus and appeared on Bosporan coins and locally produced jewelry. On the coins this symbol often appears near the head of a young man wearing a Phrygian cap, who is identified as either a solar deity or his deified worshipper. [...] the star and the crescent, the badge of the Pontus and its kings, shown on the Colchian amphora stamp, and appearing on engraved finger-rings discovered in this area allude to the possibility of an earlier association of the Pontic dynasty with the cult of mounted Mithra. Mithra in fact must have been one of the most venerated gods of the Pontic Kingdom, since its rulers bore the theophoric name of Mithradates [...] although direct evidence for this cult is rather meager."
Yulia Ustinova, ''The Supreme Gods of the Bosporan Kingdom'', Brill, 1998, 270–274</ref> or deities arising from Greek-Anatolian-Iranian syncretism, the crescent representing  ''[[Men (deity)|Mēn Pharnakou]]'' ({{lang|grc|Μήν Φαρνακου}}, the local moon god<ref>
Strabo (12.3.31) writes that Mēn Pharnakou had a sanctuary at [[Kabeira]] in Pontus where the Pontic kings would swear oaths. Mēn Pharnakou is a syncretistic Anatolian-Iranian moon deity not directly comparable to Zoroastrian Māh. Albert F. de Jong, ''Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature'' (1997),  [https://books.google.com/books?id=YLO9CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 %A9n%20Pharmakou&f=false p. 306].</ref>) and the "star" (Sun) representing [[Ahuramazda]] (in ''interpretatio graeca'' called ''Zeus Stratios'')<ref>"His royal emblem, an eight rayed star and the crescent moon, represented the dynasty's patron gods, Zeus Stratios, or Ahuramazda, and Mén Pharnakou, a Persian form of the native moon goddess." Andrew G. Traver, ''From Polis to Empire—The Ancient World c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 450'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p. 257</ref><ref>"The significance of the star and crescent on royal coins has also been frequently debated. Many scholars have identified the star and the crescent as royal symbols of the Pontic kingdom. Their appearance on every royal issue suggests they were indeed important symbols, and the connection of this symbol to the royal family is definite. The nature of it, however, is still uncertain. Kleiner believed they were symbols of an indigenous god and had their origins in Persia. He associated the star and crescent with the god Men and saw them as representations of night and day (the star may be considered the sun here). Ritter, on the other hand, suggested that the star and crescent symbols derived from Perseus, just as the star symbol of the Macedonians did. […] Ma and Mithras are two other deities with whom the star and crescent symbol are associated. Olshausen believed that the star and crescent could be related to a syncretism of Pontic and Iranian iconography: the crescent for Men and the star for Ahura Mazda. Recently, Summerer has convincingly suggested that Men alone was the inspiration for the symbol on the royal coins of the Pontic kingdom.
Deniz Burcu Erciyas, "Wealth, Aristocracy, and Royal Propaganda Under The Hellenistic Kingdom of The Mithradatids in The Central Black Sea Region in Turkey", ''Colloquia Pontica'' Vol.12, Brill, 2005, p 131</ref>

By the late [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] or early [[Roman Greece|Roman]] period, the star and crescent motif had been associated to some degree with [[Byzantium]]. If any goddess had a connection with the walls in [[Constantinople]], it was [[Hecate]]. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like [[Byzas]] in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Hecate was considered the patron goddess of Byzantium because she was said to have saved the city from an attack by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip of Macedon]] in 340 BC by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of the goddess known as the  ''Lampadephoros'' ("torch-bearer" or "torch-bringer").<ref>"Devotion to Hecate was especially favored by the Byzantines for her aid in having protected them from the incursions of Philip of Macedon. Her symbols were the crescent and star, and the walls of her city were her provenance." Vasiliki Limberis, ''Divine Heiress'', Routledge, 1994, p 15.

"In 340&nbsp;B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were attacked by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess [...]" William Gordon Holmes, ''The Age of Justinian and Theodora'', 2003 p 5-6; "If any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of "liminal places", in Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever-present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the 'Lampadephoros' was erected on the hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate's defensive aid." Vasiliki Limberis, ''Divine Heiress'', Routledge, 1994, pp. 126–127. 
This story survived in the works , who in all probability lived in the time of [[Justinian I]]. His works survive only in fragments preserved in [[Photius]] and the 10th century lexicographer [[Suda|Suidas]]. The tale is also related by [[Stephanus of Byzantium]], and [[Eustathius of Thessalonica|Eustathius]].
</ref>

Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of [[Artemis]] with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with what appears to be a six-rayed star on the reverse.

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File:MACEDON, Uranopolis. Eight-pointed star and crescent - Aphrodite Urania. Circa 300 BC.jpg|Star and crescent on a coin of [[Ouranoupoli|Uranopolis]], [[Macedon]], ca. 300 BC (see also [[Argead star]]).
File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg|A star and crescent symbol with the star shown in a sixteen-rayed "sunburst" design (3rd century BC) on the [[Ai-Khanoum plaque]].<ref>On the [[Ai-Khanoum plaque]] from [[Ai Khanoum]], [[Bactria]], 3rd century BC. [[Helios]] is shown separately in the form of a bust with a rayed halo of thirteen rays. F. Tissot, ''Catalogue of the National Museum of Afghanistan'', 1931-1985 (2006),  [https://books.google.com/books?id=TaSOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 p. 42].</ref> 
File:CoinOfMithVI.jpg|Coin of Mithradates VI Eupator. The obverse side has the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ with a stag feeding, with the star and crescent and monogram of [[Pergamum]] placed near the stag's head, all in an ivy-wreath.<ref>H. G. Liddell, ''A History of Rome from the earliest times to the establishment of the Empire'' (1857), p. 605. Cf. [https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=mithridates%20vi forumancientcoins.com].</ref>
File:001-Byzantium-2.jpg|Roman-era coin with Greek inscription (1st century AD) with a bust of [[Artemis]] on the obverse and an eight-rayed star within a crescent on the reverse side.
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The moon-goddess [[Selene]] is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by two stars (the stars represent [[Phosphorus (morning star)|Phosphorus]], the morning star, and [[Hesperus]], the evening star); sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used.<ref>[[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']], Selene, Luna 35.</ref><ref>Cohen, Beth, "Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting", in ''The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases'', Getty Publications, 2006, {{ISBN|9780892369423}}, pp. 178–179;</ref><ref>Savignoni L. 1899. "On Representations of Helios and of Selene." The Journal of Hellenic Studies '''19''': pp. 270–271</ref><ref>Zschietzschmann, W, ''Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures'', Kessinger Publishing, 2006. {{ISBN|9781428655447}}. p.23</ref> Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders.<ref>[[British Museum]] [https://www.britishmuseum.org/system_pages/beta_collection_introduction/beta_collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437423&partId=1&searchText=Selene 1923,0401.199]; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13548 Selene, Luna 21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022105/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13548 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13514 Selene, Luna 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022010/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13514 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=19022 Mithras 113] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121074105/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=19022 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13541 Selene, Luna 15] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022021/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13541 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13602 Selene, Luna 34] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022013/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13602 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=6923 Selene, Luna 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121021942/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=6923 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13519 Selene, Luna 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022112/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13519 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13521 Selene, Luna 9] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022042/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13521 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=49457 Selene, Luna 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022103/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=49457 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13546 Selene, Luna 19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121021944/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13546 |date=21 November 2018 }}. For the close association between the crescent moon and horns see Cashford.</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Altar Selene Louvre Ma508.jpg|The Moon-goddess Selene or Luna accompanied by the Dioscuri, or Phosphoros (the Morning Star) and Hesperos (the Evening Star). Marble altar, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD. From Italy.
File:Meyers b14 s0847 b1.png|The goddess Selene, illustration from ''Meyers Lexikon,'' 1888.
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In the 2nd century, the star-within-crescent is found on the obverse side of Roman coins minted during the rule of [[Hadrian]], [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]], [[Caracalla]] and [[Septimius Severus]], in some cases as part of an arrangement of a crescent and seven stars, one or several of which were placed inside the crescent.<ref>[http://www.forumancientcoins.com/moonmoth/reverse_moon.html Selene and Luna on Roman Coins (forumancientcoins.com)]:
"Bronze coin of Caracalla from [[Nicopolis ad Istrum]] with a single star in the arms of the crescent moon; coin of Geta showing five stars; a denarius of Septimius Severus with an array of seven stars."
Roman-era coins from [[Carrhae]] (Harran): [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/mesopotamia/carrhae/i.html Carrhae, Mesopotamia, modern day Harran (wildwinds.com)]</ref>

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File:Hadian denarius coin star crescent.jpg|Coin of [[Roman Empire|Roman Emperor]] [[Hadrian]] (r. 117–138). The reverse shows an eight-rayed star within a crescent.
File:Roman Crescent Star.jpg|Roman period limestone pediment from [[Perge]], [[Turkey]] ([[Antalya Museum]]) showing [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]-[[Artemis]] with a crescent and a radiant crown.
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==== Iran (Persia) ====
The star and crescent symbol appears on some coins of the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] vassal kingdom of [[Elymais]] in the late 1st century AD.
The same symbol is present in coins that are possibly associated with [[Orodes I of Parthia]] (1st century BC). In the 2nd century AD, some Parthian coins show a simplified "pellet within crescent" symbol.<ref>Michael Alram, ''Nomina Propria Iranica in Nummis, Materialgrundlagen zu den iranischen Personennamen auf Antiken Münzen'' (1986); C. Augé, "Quelques monnaies d'Elymaïde," ''Bulletin de la [[Société française de numismatique|Société Française de Numismatique]]'', November 1976; 
N. Renaud, "Un nouveau souverain d'Elymaïde," ''Bulletin de la Société Française de Numismatique'', January 1999, pp. 1–5. 
[http://www.parthia.com/parthia_coins_elymais.htm#Kamnaskires_Late Coins of Elymais (parthia.com)].</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:OrodesIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|A star and crescent appearing (separately) on the obverse side of a coin of [[Orodes II of Parthia]] (r. 57&ndash;37 BC).
File:Vardanesi.jpg|Coin of [[Vardanes I]] of Parthia (r. c. AD 40&ndash;45)
</gallery>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Coin of the Sasanian king Kavad II (cropped), minted at Susa in 628.jpg|Coin of the Sasanian king [[Kavad II]], minted at Susa in 628
File:KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg|Gold coin of [[Khosrow II]]  (r. 570&ndash;628).
File:XusravIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|Coin of [[Khosrow III]]
File:Drachma of Hormidz IV - cropped.jpg|Coin of [[Hormizd IV]]
File:Ispahbod Xurshid's coin-1.jpg|Silver dirham issued by Ispahbudh [[Khurshid of Tabaristan]]
File:Main-qimg-3edfe670ef8411d0d22df020be518e44.jpg|Arab-Sassanian coin was issued, which was added with arabic writing by the [[Umayyad]]s
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[[File:Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg|thumb|A coin of Sassanid king [[Kavadh I]] during his second reign (r. 488–531). Kavadh was the first Sassanid ruler to introduce star-and-crescent motifs as decorations on the margin of the obverse side of his coins. Note the continued use of the star and the crescent appearing on either side of the king's head.]]
The star and crescent motif appears on the margin of [[Sassanid]] coins in the 5th century.<ref>"The star and crescent are common Persian symbols, being a regular feature of the borders of Sassanian dirhems." Philip Grierson, ''Byzantine Coins'', Taylor & Francis, 1982, p118</ref>
Sassanid rulers also appear to have used crowns featuring a crescent,  sphere and crescent, or star and crescent.

Use of the star-and-crescent combination apparently goes back to the earlier appearance of a star and a crescent on [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] coins, first under King [[Orodes II]] (1st century BC). In these coins, the two symbols occur separately, on either side of the king's head, and not yet in their combined star-and-crescent form.
Such coins are also found further afield in [[Greater Persia]], by the end of the 1st century AD in a coin issued by the [[Western Satraps]] ruler [[Chashtana]].<ref>"A rare type with crescent and star alone on the reverse is probably Chashtana's earliest issue, struck before he extended his power into Malwa." H.H. Dodwell (Ed.), ''The Cambridge Shorter History of India'', Cambridge University Press, 1935, p. 83.</ref> 
This arrangement is likely inherited from its Ancient Near Eastern predecessors; the star and crescent symbols are not frequently found in Achaemenid iconography, but they are present in some cylinder seals of the Achaemenid era.<ref>Achaemenid period: 
"not normally associated with scenes cut in the Court Style"; Persepolis seal PFS 71 (M. B. Garrison in Curtis and Simpson (eds.), ''The World of Achaemenid Persia: History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=IoQAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354 p. 354])
PFS 9 (M. B. Garrison, ''Seals And The Elite At Persepolis; Some Observations On Early Achaemenid Persian Art'' (1991), [https://archive.org/stream/Garrison1991SealsAndTheEliteAtPersepolisSomeObservationsOnEarlyAchaemenidPersianArt/Garrison%201991%20Seals%20and%20the%20Elite%20at%20Persepolis%3B%20Some%20Observations%20on%20Early%20Achaemenid%20Persian%20Art#page/n7/mode/2up p. 8]).
Parthian period: "[t]he Parthian king [[Mithradates I]] conquered Mesopotamia around 147&nbsp;BC, and [[Susa]] in about 140&nbsp;BC A later Parthian king, [[Orodes II]] (58–38&nbsp;BC), issued coins at Susa and elsewhere which display a star and crescent on the obverse. The succeeding ruler, [[Phraates IV]] (38-3/2&nbsp;BC), minted coins showing either a star alone or a star with crescent moon. In representing the star and crescent on their coins the Parthians thus adopted traditional symbols used in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Elam]] more than two millennia before their own arrival in those parts." John Hansman, "The great gods of Elymais" in ''Acta Iranica, Encyclopédie Permanente Des Etudes Iraniennes, v.X, Papers in Honor of Professor Mary Boyce'', Brill Archive, 1985, pp 229&ndash;232</ref>

Ayatollahi (2003) attempts to connect the modern adoption as an "Islamic symbol" to Sassanid coins remaining in circulation after the Islamic conquest
<ref>"Sasani coins remained in circulation in Moslem countries up to the end of the first century ([[Islamic calendar|Hijra]]). This detailed description of Sasani crowns was presented because the motifs mentioned, particularly the star and crescent gradually changed into Islamic symbols and have often appeared in the decorative patterns of various periods of Islamic art. [...] The flags of many Islamic countries bear crescents and stars and are proof of this Sasani innovation." Habibollah Ayatollahi (trans. Shermin Haghshenās), ''The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian Art'', Alhoda UK, 2003, pp 155–157</ref> which is an analysis that stands in stark contrast to established consensus that there is no evidence for any connection of the symbol with Islam or the Ottomans prior to its adoption in [[Ottoman flags]] in the late 18th century.<ref>"when we come to examine the history of the crescent as a badge of Muhammadanism, we are confronted by the fact that it was not employed by the Arabs or any of the first peoples who embraced the faith of the prophet" 
"The truth is that the crescent was not identified with Islam until after the appearance of the Osmanli Turks, whilst on the other hand there is the clearest evidence that in the time of the Crusades, and long before, the crescent and star were a regular badge of Byzantium and the Byzantine Emperors, some of whom placed it on their coins."
William Ridgeway, "The Origin of the Turkish Crescent", in ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 38 (Jul. – Dec. 1908), pp. 241–258 (p 241)</ref>

====Western Turkic Khaganate====
Coins from the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]] had a crescent moon and a star, which held an important place in the worldview of ancient Turks and other peoples of Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Babayarov|first1=Gaybulla|last2=Kubatin|first2=Andrey|title=Byzantine Impact on the Iconography of Western Turkic Coinage|date=2013|journal=[[Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae]]|volume=66|issue=1|page=52|doi=10.1556/AOrient.66.2013.1.3|jstor=43283250|issn=0001-6446}}</ref>