Editing Teenage pregnancy (section)

==Effects==
According to the [[United Nations Population Fund]] (UNFPA), "Pregnancies among girls less than 18 years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty."<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy">{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/adolescent-pregnancy |title=Adolescent Pregnancy |year=2013 |publisher= UNFPA}}</ref> Health consequences include not yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death for girls under age 15 in low and middle income countries is higher than for women in their twenties.<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy"/> Teenage pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential as many are forced to drop out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.<ref name="unfpa.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy|title=Adolescent pregnancy – UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|work=United Nations Population Fund }}</ref>

Studies have examined the [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]], [[medicine|medical]], and [[psychology|psychological]] impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Corcoran |first1=Jacqueline |title=Teenage Pregnancy and Mental Health |journal=[[Societies (journal)|Societies]] |date=2016 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=21 |doi=10.3390/soc6030021 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary. Other factors, such as [[poverty]] or [[social support]], may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adolescent pregnancy|url=https://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy|access-date=19 February 2022|website=United Nations Population Fund|language=en}}</ref><ref>Stepp, G. (2009) [http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/family-relationships/teen-pregnancy/15432.aspx Teen Pregnancy: The Tangled Web]. vision.org</ref>

A holistic approach is required in order to address teenage pregnancy. This means not focusing on changing the behaviour of girls but addressing the underlying reasons of adolescent pregnancy such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and coercion. This approach should include "providing age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing [[Child marriage in the United States|child marriage]], sexual violence and coercion, building gender-equitable societies by empowering girls and engaging men and boys and ensuring adolescents' access to sexual and reproductive health information as well as services that welcome them and facilitate their choices".<ref name="unfpa.org"/>

In the United States one third of high school students reported being sexually active. In 2011–2013, 79% of females reported using birth control. Teenage pregnancy puts young women at risk for health issues, economic, social and financial issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2015/p0407-teen-pregnancy.html|title=Few teens use the most effective types of birth control{{!}} CDC Online Newsroom {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=26 July 2017|date=7 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/american-teens-sexual-and-reproductive-health|title=American Teens' Sexual and Reproductive Health|date=1 June 2016|work=Guttmacher Institute|access-date=26 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>

===Teenager===
Being a young mother in a first world country can affect one's [[education]]. Teen mothers are more likely to [[Dropping out|drop out]] of [[high school]].<ref name=natcamp>The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). {{cite web|url=http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/pdf/notjust.pdf |title=Not Just Another Single Issue: Teen Pregnancy Prevention's Link to Other Critical Social Issues |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011106/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/pdf/notjust.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}&nbsp;{{small|(147&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved 27 May 2006.</ref> A 2001 study found that women who gave birth during their teens completed [[secondary education|secondary-level schooling]] 10–12% as often and pursued [[post-secondary education]] 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofferth SL, Reid L, Mott FL | title = The effects of early childbearing on schooling over time | journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 33 | issue = 6 | pages = 259–267 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11804435 | doi = 10.2307/3030193 | jstor = 3030193 }}</ref>
''Young motherhood'' in an [[industrialized country]] can affect [[employment]] and [[social class]]. A 2009 study found that teenage girls who are pregnant or are mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sean-c-powers.com/TeenagePregnancy.html |title=The Psychological Effects of Teenage Women During Pregnancy |access-date=5 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116185041/http://sean-c-powers.com/TeenagePregnancy.html |archive-date=16 January 2009 }}</ref>

According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two years of having their first.<ref name="Statistics on Teen Pregnancy">"Statistics on Teen Pregnancy". National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy</ref> Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another life.<ref name="Day 2009" /> Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months, resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and dangerous outcomes for the babies.<ref name="Day 2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cornelius MD, Goldschmidt L, Willford JA, Leech SL, Larkby C, Day NL | title = Body Size and Intelligence in 6-year-olds: Are Offspring of Teenage Mothers at Risk? | journal = Maternal and Child Health Journal | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 847–856 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18683038 | pmc = 2759844 | doi = 10.1007/s10995-008-0399-0 }}</ref> Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have closely spaced repeat births, include marriage and education. The likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kalmuss DS, Namerow PB | title = Subsequent childbearing among teenage mothers: the determinants of a closely spaced second birth | journal = Fam Plann Perspect | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 149–53, 159 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7957815 | doi = 10.2307/2136238 | jstor = 2136238 }}</ref>

===Child===
Early motherhood can affect the [[developmental psychology|psychosocial development]] of the infant. The children of teen mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many other lifelong conditions.<ref name="Gibbs-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Gibbs | first1 = CM. | last2 = Wendt | first2 = A. | last3 = Peters | first3 = S. | last4 = Hogue | first4 = CJ. | title = The impact of early age at first childbirth on maternal and infant health | journal = Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol | volume = 26 Suppl 1 | pages = 259–84 |date=Jul 2012 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01290.x | pmid = 22742615 | pmc = 4562289 }}</ref> Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and socio-emotional delays.<ref name="Day 2009"/> [[developmental disability|Developmental disabilities]] and [[behavior]]al issues are increased in children born to teen mothers.<ref name=aap>{{cite journal | title = American Academy of Pediatrics: Care of adolescent parents and their children | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | pages = 429–34 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11158485 | doi = 10.1542/peds.107.2.429 | last1 = American Academy Of Pediatrics. Committee On Adolescence Committee On Early Childhood Adoption | first1 = Dependent Care | s2cid = 71188516 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofferth SL, Reid L | title = Early Childbearing and Children's Achievement And Behavior over Time | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–49 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11990638 | doi = 10.2307/3030231 | jstor = 3030231 | s2cid = 13558045 }}</ref> One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to [[stimulation|stimulate]] their infant through [[affection|affectionate behaviors]] such as [[Haptic communication|touch]], [[smile|smiling]], and [[linguistics|verbal communication]], or to be [[Sensitivity (human)|sensitive]] and [[acceptance|accepting]] toward their needs.<ref name=aap/> Another found that those who had more [[social support]] were less likely to show [[anger]] toward their children or to rely upon [[punishment]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Crockenberg S | title = Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers | journal = Child Dev | volume = 58 | issue = 4 | pages = 964–75 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3608666 | doi = 10.2307/1130537 | jstor = 1130537 }}
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Poor [[Grading in education|academic performance]] in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the children being held back a grade level, scoring lower on standardized tests, and/or failing to graduate from secondary school.<ref name=natcamp/> Daughters born to adolescent [[parent]]s are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.<ref name=natcamp/><ref name="Furstenberg"/> Sons born to teenage mothers are three times more likely to [[sentence (law)|serve time]] in [[prison]].<ref>Maynard, Rebecca A. (Ed.). (1996).''[http://www.urban.org/pubs/khk/index.htm Kids Having Kids] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126231940/http://www.urban.org/pubs/khk/index.htm |date=26 November 2005 }}.'' Retrieved 27 May 2006.</ref>

===Medical===
===Prenatal care===
Maternal and [[prenatal]] health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of [[premature birth]] and [[birth weight|low birth weight]] is higher among adolescent mothers.<ref name=makinson/><ref name=natcamp/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Belsky DH | title = Prenatal care and maternal health during adolescent pregnancy: A review and meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 444–456 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7811676 | doi = 10.1016/1054-139X(94)90491-K }}</ref> In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15 and 19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and a baby with a lower birth weight than mothers between 20 and 24 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Banerjee B, Pandey G, Dutt D, Sengupta B, Mondal M, Deb S | title = Teenage pregnancy: A socially inflicted health hazard | journal = Indian Journal of Community Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–231 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20049301 | pmc = 2800903 | doi = 10.4103/0970-0218.55289 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive [[prenatal care]], often seeking it in the [[third trimester]], if at all.<ref name=makinson/> The [[Guttmacher Institute]] reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to have health issues in childhood or be [[Inpatient care|hospitalized]] than those born to older women.<ref>Guttmacher Institute. (September 1999).[http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_teen_sex.html Teen Sex and Pregnancy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403024149/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_teen_sex.html |date=3 April 2005 }}. Retrieved 29 May 2006.</ref>

In the United States, teenage [[Latinas]] who become pregnant face barriers to receiving healthcare because they are the least insured group in the country.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28">{{Cite journal|last=Sterling|first=Sandra P.|date=2009|title=Contraceptive Use Among Adolescent Latinas Living in the United States: The Impact of Culture and Acculturation|journal=Journal of Pediatric Health Care|volume=23|issue=1|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/j.pedhc.2008.02.004|pmid=19103403}}</ref>

Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those who do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers appear to result from lack of access to adequate medical care.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Raatikainen K, Heiskanen N, Verkasalo PK, Heinonen S | title = Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care | journal = The European Journal of Public Health | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–161 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16141302 | doi = 10.1093/eurpub/cki158 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Many pregnant teens are at risk of [[illnesses related to poor nutrition|nutritional deficiencies]] from poor [[diet (nutrition)|eating habit]]s common in adolescence, including attempts to [[weight loss|lose weight]] through [[dieting]], [[fasting|skipping meal]]s, [[food faddism]], [[Snack food|snacking]], and consumption of [[fast food]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gutierrez Y, King JC | title = Nutrition during teenage pregnancy | journal = Pediatric Annals | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–108 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8493060 | doi=10.3928/0090-4481-19930201-07}}</ref>

Inadequate [[nutrition and pregnancy|nutrition during pregnancy]] is an even more marked problem among teenagers in [[developing country|developing countries]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanchez PA, Idrisa A, Bobzom DN, Airede A, Hollis BW, Liston DE, Jones DD, Dasgupta A, Glew RH | title = Calcium and vitamin D status of pregnant teenagers in Maiduguri, Nigeria | journal = Journal of the National Medical Association | volume = 89 | issue = 12 | pages = 805–811 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9433060 | pmc = 2608295 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Peña E, Sánchez A, Solano L | title = Profile of nutritional risk in pregnant adolescents | journal = Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–149 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14528603 }}</ref> [[Complications of pregnancy]] result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting [[HIV]].<ref name=savethechildren/> The [[World Health Organization]] estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as high for girls aged 15–19 than for women aged 20–24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged 10–14 than for women aged 20–24. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=subsahara/>

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls aged under 15, as an underdeveloped [[human pelvis|pelvis]] can lead to difficulties in [[childbirth]]. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by [[caesarean section]] in [[developed country|industrialized nations]]. In developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to [[eclampsia]], [[obstetric fistula]], [[infant mortality]], or [[maternal death]].<ref name=savethechildren/><ref name="unfpa.org"/> For mothers who are older than fifteen, age is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.<ref name=makinson/>

===Antenatal care===
In 2022, UNICEF noted that:

{{blockquote|84 percent of pregnant adolescents aged 15–19 attended at least one antenatal care visit as compared to 88 percent of all women and girls aged 15–49. Fewer adolescent girls received skilled delivery care as compared to all women and girls (77 to 84 percent). Additionally, fewer adolescent girls received postnatal care for themselves as compared to all women and girls (66 percent vs 69 percent).<ref name="UNICEF dec22"/>}}

The agency noted regional disparities, noting that in West and Central Africa, "48 percent of newborns to adolescent mothers had a postnatal contact as compared to 52 percent of newborns to all mothers".<ref name="UNICEF dec22">{{cite web |title=Early childbearing |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |website=UNICEF Data |publisher=[[UNICEF]]}}</ref>

===Economics===

The lifetime [[opportunity cost]] caused by teenage pregnancy in different countries varies, from 1% to 30% of the annual GDP, with 30% being the figure in [[Uganda]].<ref name="UNFPA">{{Cite news| title = Population and poverty| author = United Nations Population Fund| newspaper = United Nations Population Fund| date = 2014| access-date = 22 March 2019| url = https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty}}</ref> In the United States, teenage pregnancy costs taxpayers between $9.4 and $28 billion in 2016, due to factors such as foster care and lost tax revenue.<ref name="HHS">{{Cite web| title = Negative Impacts of Teen Childbearing| author = United States Department of Health and Human Services| date = 2016| access-date = 22 March 2019| url = https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/reproductive-health-and-teen-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-and-childbearing/teen-childbearing/index.html| archive-date = 21 March 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190321175033/https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/reproductive-health-and-teen-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-and-childbearing/teen-childbearing/index.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> A 2014 study estimated that an increase in economic productivity from ending teenage pregnancy in Brazil and India would be worth $3.5 billion and $7.7 billion respectively.<ref name="UNFPA"/>

Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.<ref>O'Halloran, Peggy (April 1998) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070720035204/http://www.moappp.org/Documents/pregnancypovertyschoolandemployment.pdf Pregnancy, Poverty, School and Employment]. moappp.org. Retrieved 3 December 2011.</ref> The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.<ref name=natcamp/> One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were [[poverty|impoverished]] at the time of giving birth.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Coley RL, Chase-Lansdale PL | title = Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood. Recent evidence and future directions | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–166 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9491745 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.152 }}</ref> A 2002 study found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought [[welfare (financial aid)|social assistance]] within the first five years of their child's life.<ref name=natcamp/>

A 1999 study of 100 teenaged mothers in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] found that only 11% received a [[salary]], while the remaining 89% were [[unemployment|unemployed]].<ref>Social Exclusion Unit. (1999). [https://web.archive.org/web/20061012205401/http://www.socialexclusion.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=69 Teenage Pregnancy]. Retrieved 29 May 2006.</ref> Most British teenage mothers live in [[poverty]], with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.<ref name=dfes>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081008194146/http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/teenagepregnancy/?FileName=teenpreg.pdf Teenage pregnancy]. everychildmatters.gov.uk</ref>