Editing Tokenism (section)

== In the workplace ==
A [[Harvard Business School]] professor, [[Rosabeth Moss Kanter]], asserted back in 1977<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kanter |first1=Rosabeth M. |title=Men and Women of the Corporation |date=1977 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=9780465044528 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7L63AAAAIAAJ}}</ref> that a token employee is usually part of a "socially-skewed group" of employees who belong to a [[minority group]] that constitutes less than 15% of the total employee population of the workplace.{{sfn|Kanter|1993|}}

By definition, token employees in a workplace are known to be few; hence, their alleged high visibility among the staff subjects them to greater pressure to perform their work at higher production standards of quality and volume and to behave in the expected, stereotypical manner.{{sfn|Kanter|1993|}} Given the smallness of the group of token employees in a workplace, the individual identity of each token person is usually disrespected by the dominant group, who apply a stereotype role to them as a means of social control in the workplace.{{sfn|Kanter|1993|}} In order to avoid tokenism within the workplace, diversity and inclusion must be integrated to foster an environment where people feel connected and included.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wijaya|first=Sabrina|date=December 10, 2020|title=How Much Diversity at Work Is Needed to Avoid Tokenism?|url=https://www.shl.com/resources/by-type/blog/2020/how-much-diversity-at-work-is-needed-to-avoid-tokenism/|access-date=November 20, 2021|website=SHL}}</ref> Employees must be hired on the basis of their capabilities rather than their gender, ethnicity, race, and sexuality.

Tokenism can also have an impact on mental health in the workplace. According to one study, racial minorities also experience heightened performance pressures related to their race and gender; however, many reported that racial problems were more common than gender problems.<ref name="turner">{{cite journal |last1= Turner |first1= Caroline Sotello Viernes |year= 2002 |title= Women of Color in Academe: Living with Multiple Marginality |journal= [[The Journal of Higher Education]] |volume= 73 |issue= 1 |pages= 74–93 |jstor= 1558448 }}</ref> Being a token makes one appear more visible within the workplace, placing more scrutiny and pressure for them to represent an entire group. Anxiety, stress, exhaustion, guilt, shame and burnout can arise from overworking in efforts to become a good representative of their identity group.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gillespie|first=Claire|date=September 21, 2020|title=What Is Tokenism, and How Does It Affect a Person's Health? Here's What Experts Say|url=https://www.health.com/mind-body/health-diversity-inclusion/tokenism|access-date=November 20, 2021|website=Health}}</ref>

In professor Kanter's work on tokenism and gender, she found that the problems experienced by women in typically male-dominated occupations were due solely to the skewed proportions of men and women in these occupations.{{sfn|Kanter |1993}} For example, women are often underrepresented within the [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] field, where women also sometimes face more hostile working environments where discrimination and sexual harassment are more frequent.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Funk|first=Carly|date=January 9, 2018|title=Women and Men in STEM Often at Odds Over Workplace Equity|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/01/09/women-and-men-in-stem-often-at-odds-over-workplace-equity/|access-date=November 20, 2021|website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Women in STEM may experience greater performance pressure to work harder in a male-dominated field while also experiencing social isolation from the males within their workplace.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Settles|first=Isis H.|date=October 2014|title=Women in STEM: Challenges and determinants of success and well-being|url=https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2014/10/women-stem|access-date=November 20, 2021|website=American Psychological Association}}</ref> The pressure to perform better can be influenced by the stereotype of women being less competent in mathematics and science. These non-inclusive measures contribute to the lack of women in STEM.

Professor Kanter found that being a token evoked three behaviour consequences of visibility, polarization, and assimilation.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Elstad|first1=Beate|last2=Ladegard|first2=Gro|date=January 2011|title=Women on corporate boards: Key influencers or tokens?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226616009|journal=Journal of Management and Governance|volume=16|issue=4|pages=1–21|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Firstly, tokens often felt that they were being watched all the time, leading to the feeling of more pressure to perform well. In attempts to perform well, tokens will feel the need to work harder and strive for perfection.<ref name=":6"/> Secondly, polarization implies that the dominant group are uncomfortable around tokens or feel threatened by them due to their differences.<ref name=":6"/> As a result, tokens may experience social isolation from the exclusion of the majority group.<ref name=":6"/> Finally, tokens will feel the need to assimilate to the stereotyped caricature of their roles.<ref name=":6"/> For instance, women will feel forced to perform the “suitable behaviour" of a woman in reinforcing the behaviour of stereotypes attached to which they are associated with.<ref name=":6"/>

There has been much debate surrounding the concept of tokenism behind women directors on corporate boards. Since men disproportionately occupy the majority of board seats globally, governments and corporations have attempted to address this inequitable distribution of seats through reform measures. Reform measures include legislation mandating [[gender representation on corporate boards of directors]], which has been the focus of societal and political debates.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Pletzer|first1=Jan Luca|last2=Nikolova|first2=Romina|last3=Kedzior|first3=Karina Karolina|last4=Voelpel|first4=Sven Constantin|date=2015|title=Does Gender Matter? Female Representation on Corporate Boards and Firm Financial Performance – A Meta-Analysis|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276057102|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=6|pages=20|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0130005|pmid=26086454|pmc=4473005|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1030005P|via=ResearchGate|doi-access=free}}</ref> All-male boards typically recruit women to improve specialized skills and to bring different values to decision making.<ref name=":7"/> In particular, women introduce useful female leadership qualities and skills like risk averseness, less radical decision-making, and more sustainable investment strategies.<ref name=":7"/> However, the mandate of gender diversity may also harm women. Some critics of the mandate believe that it makes women seem like "space fillers,"<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jamali|first=Lily|date=March 5, 2020|title=A Push To Get More Women On Corporate Boards Gains Momentum|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/03/05/811192459/a-push-to-get-more-women-on-corporate-boards-gains-momentum|access-date=December 10, 2021|website=NPR}}</ref> which undermines the qualifications that women can bring to their jobs.