Editing Two-step flow of communication (section)

== About ==
The two-step flow of communication model hypothesizes that ideas flow from mass media to [[opinion leader]]s, and from them to a wider population.  It was first introduced by [[sociologist]] [[Paul Lazarsfeld]] ''et al.'' in 1944<ref>Paul Felix Lazarsfeld, [[Bernard Berelson]], Hazel Gaudet, ''The people's choice: how the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign'', Columbia University Press, 1944, p. 151''ff''</ref> and elaborated by [[Elihu Katz]] and Lazarsfeld in 1955<ref name="Katz & Lazarsfeld">{{cite book|first1=Elihu|last1=Katz  |authorlink1=Elihu Katz|first2=Paul Felix|last2=Lazarsfeld |authorlink2=Paul Lazarsfeld|title=Personal Influence: the Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications|date=1955|isbn=978-1-4128-0507-0| pages=309''ff''}}</ref> and subsequent publications.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Elihu |title=The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-To-Date Report on an Hypothesis |journal=Public Opinion Quarterly |date=1 January 1957 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |doi=10.1086/266687 |jstor=266687 |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/asc_papers/271/ }}</ref> [[Melvin DeFleur]] and [[Sheoron Lowery]] argue the book was much more than a simple research report: it was an effort to interpret the authors' research within a framework of conceptual schemes, theoretical issues, and research findings drawn broadly from the scientific study of small groups.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Melvin|last1=DeFleur|authorlink1=Melvin DeFleur|first2=Shearon|last2=Lowery|authorlink2=Sheoron Lowery|title=Milestones In Mass Communication Research|url=https://archive.org/details/milestonesinmass0000lowe|url-access=registration|chapter=Personal influence: Two-Step Flow of Communication|publisher=[[Longman|Longman Inc.]]|location=London, England|date=1983|isbn=978-0801314377|page=[https://archive.org/details/milestonesinmass0000lowe/page/179 179]}}</ref> Unlike the [[hypodermic needle model]], which considers mass media effects to be direct, the two-step flow model stresses human agency.

For example, in the field of [[science communication]], [[Matthew Nisbet]] describes the use of opinion leaders as intermediaries between scientists and the public as a way to reach the public via trained individuals who are more closely engaged with their communities, such as "teachers, business leaders, attorneys, policymakers, neighborhood leaders, students, and media professionals." Examples of initiatives that take this approach include Science & Engineering Ambassadors, sponsored by the [[National Academy of Sciences]], and Science Booster Clubs, coordinated by the [[National Center for Science Education]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nisbet |first1=Matthew |title=Ambassadors for Science: Harnessing the Power of Opinion-Leaders across Communities |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]]|location=Amherst, New York|date=2018 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=30–31 |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/ambassadors_for_science |accessdate=1 June 2018}}</ref>

According to Lazarsfeld and Katz, mass media information is channeled to the "masses" through [[opinion leadership]]. The people with most access to media, and having a more literate understanding of media content, explain and diffuse the content to others.<ref name="Katz & Lazarsfeld"/>

Based on the two-step flow hypothesis, the term "personal influence" came to illustrate the process intervening between the media's direct message and the audience's reaction to that message. Opinion leaders tend to be similar to those they influence—based on personality, interests, demographics, or socio-economic factors. These leaders tend to influence others to change their attitudes and behaviors. The two-step theory refined the ability to predict how media messages influence audience behavior and explains why certain media campaigns do not alter audiences' attitudes. This hypothesis provided a basis for the two-step flow theory of [[mass communication]].<ref>"Two Step Flow Theory." Opleidingswebsite Communicatiewetenschap (CW) En Communication Studies (CS). University of Twente, 9 September 2004. Web. 11 April 2010. <{{cite web |url=http://www.cw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Levels%20of%20theories/macro/Two-Step%20Flow%20Theory.doc/ |title=Two Step Flow Theory |access-date=2010-04-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120724085010/http://www.cw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Levels%20of%20theories/macro/Two-Step%20Flow%20Theory.doc/ |archive-date=2012-07-24 }}>.</ref>

=== Contemporary debate ===

In the times of digital social media, the more than six decade old theory sparks much new interest. The fact that massive databases are being used to send tailor-made messages to individuals leads back to the idea of a "one-step flow of communication".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bennett |first1=W. Lance |last2=Manheim |first2=Jarol B. |title=The One-Step Flow of Communication |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |date=November 2006 |volume=608 |issue=1 |pages=213–232 |doi=10.1177/0002716206292266 |s2cid=143812403 }}</ref> The idea is a kind of [[Hypodermic needle model|Hypodermic needle / magic bullet model]], with the capacity of [[big data]] analytics informed [[mass customization]]. Empirical studies by other scholars, in contrast, have found that modern [[social media]] platforms, like [[Twitter]], exhibit clear evidence of a two-step flow of communication.<ref name="HilbertTwostep">{{cite journal |last1=Hilbert |first1=Martin |last2=Vásquez |first2=Javier |last3=Halpern |first3=Daniel |last4=Valenzuela |first4=Sebastián |last5=Arriagada |first5=Eduardo |title=One Step, Two Step, Network Step? Complementary Perspectives on Communication Flows in Twittered Citizen Protests |journal=Social Science Computer Review |date=August 2017 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=444–461 |doi=10.1177/0894439316639561 |s2cid=148054459 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0nn4p7mv }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Sujin |title=The Two-Step Flow of Communication in Twitter-Based Public Forums |journal=Social Science Computer Review |date=December 2015 |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=696–711 |doi=10.1177/0894439314556599 |s2cid=61637178 }}</ref> Many [[social media]] users obtain their news from [[celebrities]] or other amplifying opinion leaders, who again get informed by [[mass media]] or by individuals with specific insights. The fine-grained digital footprint of [[social media]] also suggests that there are more than simply the one-step and two-step modes of communication flow, leading the search for more complex '''Multistep Flow Models''' based on distinct network structures.<ref name="HilbertTwostep"/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Stansberry |first1=Kathleen |title=One-Step, Two-Step, or Multi-Step Flow: The Role of Influencers in Information Processing and Dissemination in Online, Interest-Based Publics |date=2012 |hdl=1794/12416 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

A study done on the Annang people of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria defined how mass media has changed the role of traditional leaders regarding the two-step flow theory. The study showed that mass media creates awareness, but does not cause people to change their thoughts or actions. The study displayed that people hear information from the media, but rely on their opinion leaders to verify and provide context. <ref>{{Cite book |title=Indigenous African communication and media systems in a digitized age |date=2024 |publisher=The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc |isbn=978-1-6669-6530-8 |editor-last=Akpan |editor-first=Unwana Samuel |location=Lanham |editor-last2=Mutua |editor-first2=Eddah M. |editor-last3=Wilson |editor-first3=Des}}</ref>The emergence of mass media has not made opinion leaders obsolete. Instead, it has changed the role that opinion leaders play. Opinion leaders and mass media work together to inform people.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Serafino |first1=Matteo |last2=Virginio Clemente |first2=Giulio |last3=Flamino |first3=James |last4=Szymanski |first4=Boleslaw K |last5=Lizardo |first5=Omar |last6=Makse |first6=Hernán A |date=2024-11-30 |title=Analysis of flows in social media uncovers a new multi-step model of information spread |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-5468/ad8748 |journal=Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment |volume=2024 |issue=11 |pages=113402 |doi=10.1088/1742-5468/ad8748 |arxiv=2409.01225 |bibcode=2024JSMTE2024k3402S |issn=1742-5468}}</ref>