Editing Ulama (section)

==Branches of learning==
===Sufism===
{{main|Sufism}}
Early on in Islamic history, a line of thought developed around the idea of [[mysticism]], striving for the perfection ''([[Ihsan]])'' of worship.<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P72_75">{{cite book| last1=Hourani| first1=Albert| title=A history of the Arab peoples| date=2012| publisher=Faber| location=London| isbn=978-0-571-28801-4| pages=72_75| edition=New}}</ref> During the first Islamic century, [[Hasan al-Basri]] (642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to [[Albert Hourani]] (1991) "the sense of the distance and nearness of God&nbsp;... in the language of love". During the 7th century, the ritual of [[Dhikr]] evolved as a "way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world". Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were [[Harith al-Muhasibi]] (781–857 AD) and [[Junayd of Baghdad|Junayd al-Baghdadi]] (835–910 AD).<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P72_75"/>

===Philosophy and ethics===
{{main|Islamic philosophy}}
The [[early Muslim conquests]] brought about [[Arabs|Arab]] Muslim rule over large parts of the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic world]]. During the time of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with the classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language<ref name="Sezgin 1970_P3_4">{{cite book| last=Sezgin | first=Fuat | title=Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums Bd. III: Medizin – Pharmazie – Zoologie – Tierheilkunde = History of the Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine – Pharmacology – Veterinary Medicine| date=1970| publisher=E. J. Brill| location=Leiden| pages=3–4|author-link = Fuat Sezgin}}</ref> initiated a period which is known today as the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes [[al-Kindi]] (c. 801–873 AD), "the father of Islamic philosophy",<ref>{{cite book|last=Abboud|first=Tony|title=Al-Kindi : the father of Arab philosophy|date=2006|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|isbn=978-1-4042-0511-6}}</ref> as follows:

<blockquote>
We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Hourani| first1=Albert| title=A history of the Arab peoples| date=2012| publisher=Faber| location=London| isbn=978-0-571-28801-4| page=76| edition=New}}</ref>
</blockquote>

The works of [[Aristotle]], in particular his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like [[Al-Farabi]] (870–950 AD), [[Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri]] (d. 992 AD) and [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and the religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the ''sharia''. The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses "was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought".<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P78">{{cite book| last1=Hourani| first1=Albert| title=A history of the Arab peoples| date=2012| publisher=Faber| location=London| isbn=978-0-571-28801-4| page=78| edition=New}}</ref> As exemplified by the works of [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]] ({{circa}} 865–925 AD), during later times, philosophy "was carried on as a private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion".<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P78"/>

The founder of Islamic philosophical ethics is [[Miskawayh|Ibn Miskawayh]] (932–1030 AD)<ref name=EI>{{Cite encyclopedia| edition=New| publisher=E.J. Brill| isbn=978-90-04-15610-4| volume=7| pages=143a–144b|editor1=H. A. R. Gibb| last=Arkoun| first=M.| title=Miskawayh| encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Islam| location=Leiden| year=1993}}</ref> He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by [[Porphyry of Gaza]] as the foundation of his philosophical thoughts.<ref>Ibn Miskawayh: ''Refinement of Morals and Cleansing of Ethics''. ʿAbdel-ʿAlim Salih (Ed.), Cairo 1326 (1908 AD), p. 10, cited after {{cite book| last1=Elschazlī| first1=Abū-Ḥamid Muḥammad al-Ghazālī. Aus dem Arab. übers., mit einer Einl., mit Anm. und Indices hrsg. von ʻAbd-Elṣamad ʻAbd-Elḥamīd| title=Das Kriterium des Handelns : Criterion of Action| date=2006| publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft| location=Darmstadt| isbn=978-3-534-19039-3| page=52| language=de}}</ref>

In the 12th century, the early Islamic [[Neoplatonism]] which had developed out of [[Hellenistic philosophy]] was effectively criticised by [[al-Ghazali]],<ref>{{cite book| last=Watt| first=W. Montgomery| title=The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali| year=1953| publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd| location=London| url=http://www.ghazali.org/works/watt3.htm}}</ref> one of the most influential scholars of Islam.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Janin| first1=Hunt| title=The pursuit of learning in the Islamic world, 610–2003| date=2007| publisher=McFarland| location=Jefferson, NC [etc.]| isbn=978-0-7864-2904-2| page=83| edition=repr.}}</ref> In his works ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers|Tahāfut al-Falāsifa]]'' (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), ''Mizan al-'amal'' (Criterion of Action) and ''[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]]'' (The Alchemy of Happiness), he refuted the [[Avicennism|Philosophy of Ibn Sīnā]], and demonstrated that the Aristotelian ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on the belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of [[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat#Sa'āda|''sa'āda'']] (Happiness).<ref>{{cite book| last1=Elschazlī| first1=Abū-Ḥamid Muḥammad al-Ghazālī. Aus dem Arab. übers., mit einer Einl., mit Anm. und Indices hrsg. von ʻAbd-Elṣamad ʻAbd-Elḥamīd| title=Das Kriterium des Handelns : Criterion of Action| date=2006| publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft| location=Darmstadt| isbn=978-3-534-19039-3| page=56| language=de}}</ref>

===Law===
{{main|Sharia}}
According to [[Shia Islam]], the authority to interpret the messages of the [[Quran]] and the [[Hadith]] lies with the [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imamah]], a line of infallible interpreters of the truth. The [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that God's will has been completely revealed in the Quran and ''[[sunnah]]'' of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama.<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P158">{{cite book| last1=Hourani| first1=Albert| title=A history of the Arab peoples| date=2012| publisher=Faber| location=London| isbn=978-0-571-28801-4| page=158| edition=New}}</ref>

By the eleventh century, the major schools of Sunni and Shia law ''([[madhhab]])'' had emerged. Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important Sunni schools are:<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P158"/>
* [[Shafi'i]] ([[Egypt]], [[Mashriq]], [[Hijaz]], [[Yemen]])
* [[Maliki]] ([[Maghreb]] and [[West Africa]])
* [[Hanafi]] ([[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]], [[the Balkans]], [[Turkey]])
* [[Hanbali]] (most common in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf counties]])

Shia madhhab include the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence|Ja'fari]] and [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] schools. Minor madhhab also mentioned in the [[Amman message]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Amman Message|url=http://ammanmessage.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=15&Itemid=29&limit=1&limitstart=1| access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref> are the [[Ibadi]] and the [[Zahiri]] schools.

All Sunni ''madhhabs'' recognize four sources of ''[[sharia]]'' (divine law): the Quran, ''[[sunnah]]'' (authentic hadith), ''[[qiyas]]'' (analogical reasoning), and ''[[ijma]]'' (juridical consensus).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Farhat J.|last=Ziadeh|article=Uṣūl al-fiqh|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World| editor-last=Esposito | editor-first=John L. |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135}}</ref> However, the ''madhhabs'' differ from each other in their conception of the [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence]], or ''uṣūl al-fiqh'', as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991).<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P158_160">{{cite book| last1=Hourani| first1=Albert| chapter=The culture of the ʻulama | title=A history of the Arab peoples.| date=2012| publisher=Faber| location=London| isbn=978-0-571-28801-4| pages=158–160| edition=New}}</ref> The Hanbalis accepted only the consensus of the [[Sahabah|Companions of the Prophet]] ''(aṣ-ṣaḥābah)'', which gave more leeway to independent reasoning ''([[ijtihad]])'' within the boundaries of the rules of ''qiyās''. The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference ''([[istihsan]])'', whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare ''([[istislah]])'' are also acceptable.<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P158_160"/> Instead of the Sunni concept of analogy ''(qiyās)'', Shia ulama prefer "dialectical reasoning" ''([['Aql]])'' to deduce law.<ref>{{cite book| last=Esposito | first=John | title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam| location=Oxford, UK | publisher =Oxford University Press| year=2004| page=22 | isbn=978-0-19-512559-7| title-link=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam| author-link=John Esposito}}</ref>

The body of substantive jurisprudence ''([[fiqh]]'') defines the proper way of life through interpretation of ''sharia'', which Muslims should  follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the ''madhhabs'' established "codes of conduct", examining human actions in the light of the Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs ''([[Urf|ʿurf]])'' within a given society. Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco, [[qadi]]s were allowed to use a process called ''ʻamal'' in order to  choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often, the use of sharia led to changes in local customs.<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P158_160"/>

=== Theology ===
{{Main|Schools of Islamic theology|Kalam}}

[[Kalam|ʿIlm al-Kalām]], the "science of discourse", also termed "Islamic theology", serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Winter | editor-first=Tim J. |chapter=Introduction |title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology| date=2008| publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-78549-5| pages=4–5| edition=3rd}}</ref> The concept of ''kalām'' was introduced during the first Islamic centuries by the [[Muʿtazila]] school.<ref>{{cite book| last=Stelzer | first=Steffen A. J. | chapter=Ethics | editor-first=Tim J. | editor-last=Winter | title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology| date=2008| publisher=Cambridge University Press| location=Cambridge, UK| isbn=978-0-521-78549-5| page=165| edition=3rd | chapter-url=https://pmr.uchicago.edu/sites/pmr.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/Stelzer_ClassicalIslamicTheology_Ethics.pdf}}</ref> One of the most prominent scholars of the Muʿtazila was [[Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad]] (935–1025 AD). From the 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni [[Abbasid Caliphate]] and the [[Seljuk Empire]], but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology. The [[Ash'ari]] school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation. [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] (853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from the Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world.<ref name="Hourani_HAP_P158_160"/>

A distinct school of theology often called [[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|traditionalist theology]] emerged under the leadership of [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Lapidus | first = Ira M. | author-link=Ira M. Lapidus | title = A History of Islamic Societies | publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) | year = 2014| page=130}}</ref> In the wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and [[Hanbalite]] literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Lapidus | first = Ira M. | author-link=Ira M. Lapidus | title = A History of Islamic Societies | publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) | year = 2014| pages=123–124}}</ref> While [[Ash'arism]] and [[Maturidism]] are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith.<ref>*{{Cite book|first=Jonathan A.C. |last=Brown| year=2009 | title=Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World|publisher=Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition) |page=180}}</ref>

Islamic theology experienced further developments among [[Schools of Islamic theology#Shia schools of theology|Shia theologians]].