Editing Urinary retention (section)

== Causes ==

===Bladder===
* Infection<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khasriya R, Barcella W, [[Maria De Iorio|De Iorio M]], Swamy S, Gill K, Kupelian A, Malone-Lee J | title = Lower urinary tract symptoms that predict microscopic pyuria | journal = International Urogynecology Journal | volume = 29 | issue = 7 | pages = 1019–1028 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 28971220 | pmc = 6004270 | doi = 10.1007/s00192-017-3472-7 }}</ref>
* [[Bladder sphincter dyssynergia|Detrusor sphincter dyssynergia]]
* [[Neurogenic bladder dysfunction|Neurogenic bladder]] (commonly spinal cord damage, pelvic splanchic nerve damage, cauda equina syndrome,  pontine micturition or storage center lesions, [[demyelinating diseases]], [[multiple system atrophy]], [[genital herpes]], or [[meningitis-retention syndrome]])
* [[Iatrogenesis|Iatrogenic]] (caused by medical treatment/procedure) scarring of the bladder neck (commonly from removal of indwelling [[catheters]] or [[cystoscopy]] operations)
* Damage to the bladder

===Prostate===
* [[Benign prostatic hyperplasia]] (BPH)
* [[Prostate cancer]] and other pelvic [[cancer|malignancies]]
* [[Prostatitis]]

===Penile urethra===
* [[Congenital urethral valves]]
* [[Phimosis]] or pinhole meatus
* [[Circumcision]]
* Obstruction in the urethra, for example a stricture (usually caused either by injury or STD), a metastasis or a precipitated [[pseudogout]] crystal in the urine
* [[Pseudodyssynergia]]
* STD lesions ([[Gonorrhea|gonorrhoea]] causes numerous strictures, leading to a "rosary bead" appearance, whereas chlamydia usually causes a single stricture)
* [[Emasculation]]

===Postoperative===
Risk factors include
* Age: Older people may have [[Degeneration (medical)|degeneration]] of [[neural pathway]]s involved with bladder function and it can lead to an increased risk of postoperative urinary retention.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kowalik U, Plante MK | title = Urinary Retention in Surgical Patients | journal = The Surgical Clinics of North America | volume = 96 | issue = 3 | pages = 453–467 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27261788 | doi = 10.1016/j.suc.2016.02.004 }}</ref> The risk of postoperative urinary retention increases up to 2.11 fold for people older than 60 years.<ref name=":7" />
* Medications: [[Anticholinergics]] and medications with anticholinergic properties, [[alpha-adrenergic agonist]]s, [[opiate]]s, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), [[Calcium channel blocker|calcium-channel blockers]] and [[beta-adrenergic agonist]]s, may increase the risk.<ref name=acdj/><ref name=":7" />
* Anesthesia: General anesthetics during surgery may cause bladder [[atony]] by acting as a smooth muscle relaxant.<ref name=":7" /> General anesthetics can directly interfere with autonomic regulation of [[Detrusor muscle|detrusor]] tone and predispose people to bladder overdistention and subsequent retention.<ref name=":7" /> Spinal anesthesia results in a blockade of the [[Urination|micturition reflex]].<ref name=":7" /> Spinal anesthesia shows a higher risk of postoperative urinary retention compared to general anesthesia.<ref name=":7" />
* [[Benign prostatic hyperplasia]]: Men with benign prostatic hyperplasia are at an increased risk of acute urinary retention.<ref name=":7" />
* Surgery related: Operative times longer than 2 hours may lead to an increased risk of postoperative urinary retention 3-fold.<ref name=":7" />
* Postoperative pain.<ref name=":7" />

===Chronic===
Chronic urinary retention that is due to bladder blockage which can either be as a result of muscle damage or neurological damage.<ref name="Stof2017" /> If the retention is due to neurological damage, there is a disconnect between the brain to muscle communication, which can make it impossible to completely empty the bladder.<ref name="Stof2017" /> If the retention is due to muscle damage, it is likely that the muscles are not able to contract enough to completely empty the bladder.<ref name="Stof2017" />

The most common cause of chronic urinary retention is BPH.<ref name="NIH2014" />

===Other===
* [[Tethered spinal cord syndrome]].{{cn|date=May 2025}}
* [[Somatic symptom disorder|Psychogenic]] causes – psychosocial stresses, fear associated with urination, [[paruresis]] ("shy bladder syndrome") – in extreme cases, urinary retention can result.{{cn|date=May 2025}}
* [[noradrenergic]] drugs, that includes [[tricyclic antidepressants]], as well as [[duloxetine]], [[reboxetine]], [[atomoxetine]], [[venlafaxine]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Whiskey |first1=Eromona |last2=Taylor |first2=David |date=2013 |title=A review of the adverse effects and safety of noradrenergic antidepressants |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |language=en |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=732–739 |doi=10.1177/0269881113492027 |pmid=23784737 |issn=0269-8811}}</ref> and [[stimulant]]s, such as [[methylphenidate]], [[amphetamine]] and [[Methylenedioxymethamphetamine|MDMA]].
* Use of NSAIDs, or drugs with [[anticholinergic]] properties.{{cn|date=May 2025}}
* Stones or metastases, which can theoretically appear anywhere along the urinary tract, but vary in frequency depending on anatomy.{{cn|date=May 2025}}
* [[Muscarinic antagonist]]s such as [[atropine]] and [[Hyoscine hydrobromide|scopolamine]].{{cn|date=May 2025}}
* Malfunctioning [[artificial urinary sphincter]].{{cn|date=May 2025}}