Editing Varuna (section)

=== Samhita ===
====Rigveda====
In the oldest Hindu scripture, ''[[Rigveda]]'' (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1900–1200 BCE), Varuṇa is among the most prominent deities, appearing in numerous hymns, including 1.25, 2.27–30, 7.86–88, 8.8, and 9.73.<ref name="dhavamony167">{{cite book |author=Mariasusai Dhavamony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC |title=Classical Hinduism |publisher=Gregorian |year=1982 |isbn=978-88-7652-482-0 |pages=167–168 with footnotes}}</ref><ref name="Snodgrass1992p121" /> Despite this frequent mention, he is the central focus of only ten hymns. Varuṇa is portrayed in four principal aspects: as a universal monarch and sovereign of the sky, the upholder of ''[[ṛta]]'' (cosmic order), a deity associated with water (''[[Ap (water)|āpah]]''), and a wielder of ''[[māyā]]'' (cosmic illusion or creative power).<ref name=":Rig">{{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=Dr Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HODWjwEACAAJ |title=Indra And Varuna In Indian Mythology |publisher=Nag Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-81-7081-034-6 |pages=33–49 |language=en |chapter=Varuṇa in the Ṛgveda}}</ref>

The ''Rigveda'' features Varuna as the [[Sky deity|god-king of the sky]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bauer |first=Susan Wise |author-link=Susan Wise Bauer |title=The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome |publisher=[[W. W. Norton]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-393-05974-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=265}}</ref> He is described as a divine king (''[[Maharaja|samraj]]'') with pure strength, abiding in the celestial firmament, where he sustains a radiant mass of light. He is credited with creating the sun’s path and is invoked to dispel suffering, liberate from sin, and shield from evil (''[[nirṛti]]''). His realm includes the movement of constellations and the moon, which obey his divine ordinances. His omniscience is central to his identity: he observes all actions through celestial spies, residing in a thousand-gated palace upon a golden throne—symbols of his pervasive awareness and authority.<ref name=":Rig" />

In ''Rigveda'' 1.25, Varuṇa is praised for his understanding of the paths of birds, the movement of ships and winds, and the secrets of time and space. Hymns characterize him as a sovereign deity, intimately acquainted with both the sacred and the profane.<ref name=":Rig" /> According to ''Rigveda'' 10.123, Varuṇa's messenger is described as the ''Hiraṇyapakṣa'' (golden-winged bird), interpreted by some as a reference to flamingos, based on their colorful plumage and proximity to aquatic habitats. The vulture is likewise mentioned as a messenger of Yama, suggesting symbolic parallels between the two birds.<ref>{{Cite web |year=1897 |title=The Hymns of the Rigveda |url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigveda00unkngoog/page/n574/mode/2up |publisher=E.J. Lazarus & co.}}</ref><ref name="Oldenberg1988p104">{{cite book |author=Hermann Oldenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uKeubCiBOPQC |title=The Religion of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0392-3 |page=104}}</ref><ref name=":Rig2">{{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=Dr Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HODWjwEACAAJ |title=Indra And Varuna In Indian Mythology |publisher=Nag Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-81-7081-034-6 |pages=33–49 |language=en |chapter=Varuṇa in the Ṛgveda}}</ref>

Varuṇa's foremost role is as the enforcer of ''[[ṛta]]'', the cosmic and moral order that governs both the natural world and human conduct. Hymns such as ''Rigveda'' VII.11.1 and II.29.8 present him as a vigilant upholder of truth, who punishes transgressors while showing mercy to the penitent. Ethical instructions against killing, deceit, and gambling are linked with his domain. His ordinances are described as unshakable, akin to a mountain.<ref name="dhavamony167" /><ref name="Griffiths1991p132">{{cite book |author=John Gwyn Griffiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDbjjKglE1kC&pg=PA132 |title=The Divine Verdict: A Study of Divine Judgement in the Ancient Religions |publisher=BRILL |year=1991 |isbn=90-04-09231-5 |pages=132–133}}</ref> Concepts closely tied to ''ṛta''—such as ''[[vrata]]'' (sacred vow) and ''[[Dharma|dharman]]'' (duty, law)—are frequently associated with Varuṇa. In this context, ''vrata'' implies both divine commands and ethical imperatives, while ''dharman'' denotes sacrificial law or moral conduct. Varuṇa is accordingly called ''Rivan'' ("guide of moral order") and ''Pūtadakṣa'' ("possessor of pure will").<ref name=":Rig" />

Sin (''ṛṇa'') is conceptualized as a breach of Varuṇa’s order, often attributed to human frailty. Hymns express remorse not only for individual wrongdoing but also for ancestral transgressions, suggesting a nascent idea of inherited guilt. Despite his role as punisher, Varuṇa is often invoked for forgiveness, protection from evil, and relief from fear and dreams. He is described as both a judge and a healer, bearing “a thousand remedies” alongside weapons to punish sin.<ref name=":Rig" />

Varuṇa’s association with water is both cosmological and symbolic. He presides over ''Apah'', the primeval waters representing the matrix of creation. Hymns such as ''Rigveda'' VII.49.4 describe these waters as celestial and purifying. Varuṇa is also called ''Sindhu-pati'' ("lord of the ocean"), sharing this title with [[Mitra (Hindu god)|Mitra]]. These waters are the source of the universe, acting as both creative womb and sacred energy. In later Vedic texts, the waters called Viraj are described as Varuṇa’s consorts, representing ''[[prakṛti]]'' (primordial matter), and Varuṇa himself is termed an ''[[Asura]]'', denoting "possessor of ''māyā''" or vital force, without the later demonic connotation.<ref name=":Rig" />

Varuṇa’s use of ''māyā''—his divine creative power—is a recurring theme in the ''Rigveda''. It refers to his capacity to shape the cosmos and enforce ''ṛta''. Hymns in Mandala VIII describe him as embracing night and measuring the earth with the sun. Through ''māyā'', Varuṇa becomes not only the enforcer of law but also a cosmic architect.<ref name=":Rig" />

===== Combined descriptions: ''Mitra–Varuṇa'' =====
Varuṇa is frequently paired with [[Mitra (Hindu god)|Mitra]] in the compound ''[[Mitra–Varuna|Mitra–Varuṇa]]'', appearing prominently in the ''Rigveda''. Together, they preside over moral and cosmic law, and are associated with ritual, rain, and natural cycles.<ref name=":Rig" /> Both deities are referred to as ''[[Asura|Asuras]]'' (e.g., RV 5.63.3), though also addressed as ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (e.g., RV 7.60.12), reflecting fluid theological roles.<ref name="Oldenberg1988p95">{{cite book |author=Hermann Oldenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uKeubCiBOPQC&pg=PA95 |title=The Religion of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0392-3 |pages=95–98}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=David Leeming |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem |title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-028888-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem/page/200 200] |url-access=registration}}</ref>  According to myths, Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats [[Vritra]].<ref>F. B. J. Kuiper (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061926 The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion], History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov., 1975), pp. 107–120</ref>

Mitra–Varuṇa are described as youthful monarchs clad in glistening garments, residing in a golden palace with a thousand pillars and gates. They are lords of rivers, rain, and heavenly order, sending dew and bountiful waters, and punishing falsehood with disease.<ref name="VR">{{cite book |last=MacDonell |first=Arthur Anthony |title=A Vedic Reader |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1917 |pages=78–83, 118–119, 134}}</ref> Their sun is described as their "eye", and their cosmic chariot moves across the sky via solar rays. Possessing divine spies and secret knowledge (''māyā́''), they maintain ''ṛta'' and oversee oaths and societal order.<ref name="VR" /> According to myth, the sages [[Vasishtha|Vashistha]] and [[Agastya]] were born from their shared semen, which they deposited into a pitcher after seeing the celestial nymph [[Urvashi]].<ref name="G">{{cite book |last=Goodman |first=Hananya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&q=agastya+vasistha+urvasi+rgveda&pg=PA218 |title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative studies in Judaism and Hinduism |date=2012-02-01 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-0437-0 |lang=en}}</ref>

Scholar [[Doris Meth Srinivasan|Doris Srinivasan]] highlights the ambiguous and dualistic nature of Mitra–Varuṇa, comparing it to the [[Rudra]]-[[Shiva]] pairing.<ref name="Macey2010p2">{{cite book |author=Samuel L. Macey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_z_R89DaPkC&pg=PA2 |title=Patriarchs of Time |publisher=University of Georgia Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8203-3797-5 |pages=2–3, 165}}</ref> Both Varuṇa and Rudra are described as omniscient guardians, capable of both wrath and grace. In ''Rigveda'' 5.70, the Mitra–Varuṇa pair is even called ''Rudra''.<ref name="Srinivasan1997p48">{{cite book |author=Doris Srinivasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA48 |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |publisher=BRILL Academic |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-10758-4 |pages=48–49}}</ref> According to Samuel Macey and other scholars, Varuna had been the more ancient Indo-Aryan deity in 2nd millennium BCE, who gave way to Rudra in the Hindu pantheon, and Rudra-Shiva became both "timeless and the god of time".<ref name="Macey2010p2" /><ref>{{cite book |author1=J. P. Mallory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World |author2=D. Q. Adams |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-928791-8 |pages=430–432}}</ref>

====Yajuraveda====
In the ''[[Yajurveda]]'' (c. 1200 and before 800 BCE), Varuṇa maintains his exalted status as guardian of ''[[ṛta]]'' and sovereign of the waters. He is portrayed as a moral overseer who casts his noose (''[[pāśa]]'') upon transgressors and is invoked as both judge and healer. His role expands to include health and medicine, and he is referred to as the “patron deity of physicians.” In the ''Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā'' (21.40), he is described as possessing “a hundred, a thousand remedies,” echoing earlier ''Ṛgvedic'' hymns linking him to herbs and healing.<ref name="Srinivasan1997p48" /> His capacity and association with "all comprehensive knowledge" is also found in the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (~1000 BCE).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Srinivasan |first=Doris |year=1978 |title=The Religious Significance of Divine Multiple Body Parts in the Atharva Veda |journal=Numen |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=198–200, context: 193–225 |doi=10.1163/156852778x00245}}</ref>

Varuṇa resides in celestial waters described as pure, nourishing, and maternal. These waters are identified with ''Mahatsalilam'' (the great waters), linked to [[Aditi]]—the cosmic mother and creative force. As lord of these waters, Varuṇa becomes a symbol of cosmic law, creation, and protection. The waters not only represent physical phenomena but also the metaphysical substratum of reality.<ref name=":Sam Yaj">{{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=Dr Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HODWjwEACAAJ |title=Indra And Varuna In Indian Mythology |publisher=Nag Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-81-7081-034-6 |pages=49–52, 52 |language=en |chapter=Varuṇa in the Yajuraveda, Samadeva}}</ref>

His association with law and conscience continues through imagery such as the “three bonds” that bind the sinner—interpreted as natural forces like cloud, lightning, and thunder—symbolizing physical and moral consequences. Worshippers pray for release from these bonds and seek reconciliation with ''ṛta''. As in earlier texts, Varuṇa is revered with a mixture of fear and devotion, embodying both justice and mercy.<ref name=":Sam Yaj" />

In ''Yajurveda'' 8.59, it is stated: “In fact, Varuṇa is [[Vishnu|Viṣṇu]] and Viṣṇu is Varuṇa, and hence the auspicious offering is to be made to these deities.” This reflects theological fluidity in the identification of divine roles and emphasizes Varuṇa’s integration into broader Vedic pantheon.<ref name="Pandey">{{cite book |last=Pandey |first=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmhpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=Yajurveda |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Limited |year=2020 |isbn=978-81-288-2284-1 |page=48 |access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>

Ritually, Varuṇa is associated with the west and is offered a black ram with a white foot during sacrifices, symbolizing concealment and dominion over night.<ref name=":Rig" />

====Samaveda====
Though no original verses directly address Varuna in the ''[[Samaveda]]'' (c. 1200 to 1000 BCE), ''Rigvedic'' hymns to him are adapted into Saman melodies, indicating his continued reverence in ritual worship.<ref name=":Sam Yaj" />

====Atharvaveda====
In the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1200–900 BCE), Varuṇa’s portrayal evolves while retaining continuity with earlier depictions. Although scholars such as [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|A.A. Macdonell]] have suggested that Varuṇa appears here "divested of his powers as a universal ruler," other interpretations challenge this view. Rather than a decline, Varuṇa’s role shifts toward a more metaphysical and moral presence, with water remaining a central element of his identity.<ref name=":Ath">{{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=Dr Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HODWjwEACAAJ |title=Indra And Varuna In Indian Mythology |publisher=Nag Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-81-7081-034-6 |pages=52–54 |language=en |chapter=Varuṇa in the Atharvaveda}}</ref>

The ''Atharvavedic'' waters (''[[Ap (water)|āpah]]'') are described as golden-hued, pure, and sacred. They function not only as physical substances but also as the womb of creation, giving rise to deities such as [[Savitr|Savitṛ]] and [[Agni]]. These waters embody the principle of becoming, and Varuṇa, as their lord, governs the cosmic processes emerging from them.<ref name=":Ath" />

One of the most prominent hymns dedicated to Varuṇa is Book IV, Hymn 16, which emphasizes his omniscience and moral surveillance. He is said to possess “spies with a thousand eyes” who descend to observe all human actions. His oversight extends beyond earth and heaven to regions beyond the visible cosmos. The metaphor of Varuṇa controlling the world like a gamester casting dice illustrates his dominion over fate and law.<ref name=":Ath" />

This hymn also introduces magical and imprecatory themes, consistent with the ''Atharvaveda’s'' ritualistic focus. Still, the theological depth remains intact: Varuṇa punishes immorality not out of wrath, but in fulfillment of his cosmic duty to uphold ''ṛta''. His moral authority is depicted as omnipresent and inescapable. Here, Varuṇa's moral authority is reinforced by his role as enforcer of law through spiritual nooses ([[pāśa]]) cast upon the wicked.<ref name=":Ath" />

A notable development in the ''Atharvaveda'' is the explicit articulation of Varuṇa’s dual nature as both punisher and forgiver. In Book I, Hymn 10, a priest pleads for the release of a sinner, reflecting the idea that sin can result from ignorance or falsehood and can be absolved through penance. This reveals a sophisticated moral theology, wherein divine grace is attainable through sincere repentance.<ref name=":Ath" />

[[Max Müller]] praised this dualism, viewing Varuṇa as one of the most theologically advanced constructs in early Indo-Aryan religion. Rooted in sky imagery yet imbued with ethical and cosmic dimensions, Varuṇa is both transcendent and intimately connected with human conscience.<ref name=":Ath" />

Varuṇa is again identified as ''Māyin''—master of ''[[māyā]]'', or divine creative power—and called ''[[Asura]]'' in its original sense of “lord” or “mighty one.” This emphasizes his possession of ''asu'' (vital power) and his role as an invisible force guiding the visible world. Yet, his identity as ''Apām Adhipati''—the Lord of Waters—remains constant. The waters, symbolic of purity, healing, and cosmic potential, reinforce his status as a protector of life and order in the ''Atharvaveda''.<ref name=":Ath" />