Editing Velociraptor (section)

==Description==
[[File:Velociraptor size.png|thumb|left|''Velociraptor'' specimens compared in size to a {{convert|1.8|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall [[human]]]]
''Velociraptor'' was a small to medium-sized [[dromaeosaurid]], with adults measuring between {{convert|1.5|-|2.07|m|ft|abbr=on}} long, approximately {{convert|0.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} high at the hips,<ref name=paul1988/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=A.H.|last2=Pol|first2=D.|last3=Clarke|first3=J.A.|last4=Erickson|first4=G.M.|last5=Norell|first5=M.A.|date=2007|title=A Basal Dromaeosaurid and Size Evolution Preceding Avian Flight|journal=Science|volume=317|issue=5843|pages=1378–1381|bibcode=2007Sci...317.1378T|doi=10.1126/science.1144066|pmid=17823350|doi-access=free}} [https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1144066 Supporting Online Material] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219095915/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1144066 |date=19 December 2021 }}</ref> and weighing about {{convert|14.1|-|19.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Campione|first1=N. E.|last2=Evans|first2=D. C.|last3=Brown|first3=C. M.|last4=Carrano|first4=M. T.|date=2014|title=Body mass estimation in non-avian bipeds using a theoretical conversion to quadruped stylopodial proportions|journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution|volume=5|issue=9|pages=913–923|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.12226|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014MEcEv...5..913C |hdl=10088/25281}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Campione|first1=N. E.|last2=Evans|first2=D. C.|date=2020|title=The accuracy and precision of body mass estimation in non-avian dinosaurs|journal=Biological Reviews|volume=95|issue=6|pages=1759–1797|doi=10.1111/brv.12638|pmid=32869488|s2cid=221404013|doi-access=free}}[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/brv.12638#SupportingInformation Supporting Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110235036/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/brv.12638#SupportingInformation |date=10 November 2020 }}</ref>

Prominent [[quill knobs]]—attachment site of "[[wing]]" feathers and direct indicator of a [[feather]] covering—have been reported from the [[ulna]] of a single ''Velociraptor'' specimen (IGM 100/981), which represents an animal of estimated {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight. The spacing of 6 preserved knobs suggests that 8 additional knobs may have been present, giving a total of 14 quill knobs that developed large [[Flight feather#Secondaries|secondaries]] ("wing" feathers stemming from the forearm).<ref name=Turneer2007>{{cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=A. H.|last2=Makovicky|first2=P. J.|last3=Norell|first3=M. A.|date=2007|title=Feather Quill Knobs in the Dinosaur Velociraptor|journal=Science|volume=317|issue=5845|page=1721|bibcode=2007Sci...317.1721T|doi=10.1126/science.1145076|pmid=17885130|s2cid=11610649|url=http://evolucionuader.yolasite.com/resources/Lecturas_complementarias/Articulos_Cient%C3%ADficos/Turner%20et%20al%202007%20-%20Dinosaurios%20con%20plumas..pdf|archive-date=30 November 2022|access-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130033412/http://evolucionuader.yolasite.com/resources/Lecturas_complementarias/Articulos_Cient%C3%ADficos/Turner%20et%20al%202007%20-%20Dinosaurios%20con%20plumas..pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the specimen number has been corrected to IGM 100/3503 and its referral to ''Velociraptor'' may require reevaluation, pending further study.<ref name=Napoli2021/> Nevertheless, there is strong [[Phylogenetic bracketing|phylogenetic evidence]] from other dromaeosaurid relatives that indicates the presence of feathers in ''Velociraptor'', including dromaeosaurids such as ''[[Daurlong]]'',<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=X.|last2=Cau|first2=A.|last3=Guo|first3=B.|last4=Ma|first4=F.|last5=Qing|first5=G.|last6=Liu|first6=Y.|date=2022|title=Intestinal preservation in a birdlike dinosaur supports conservatism in digestive canal evolution among theropods|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12 |number=19965|page=19965 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219965W|doi=10.1038/s41598-022-24602-x|doi-access=free|pmc=9675785|pmid=36402874}}</ref> ''[[Microraptor]]'',<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hone|first1=D. W. E.|last2=Tischlinger|first2=H.|last3=Xu|first3=X.|last4=Zhang|first4=F.|date=2010|title=The Extent of the Preserved Feathers on the Four-Winged Dinosaur Microraptor gui under Ultraviolet Light|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5|issue=2|pages=e9223|bibcode=2010PLoSO...5.9223H|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0009223|doi-access=free|pmc=2821398|pmid=20169153}}</ref> or ''[[Zhenyuanlong]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lü|first1=J.|last2=Brusatte|first2=S.L.|date=2015|title=A large, short-armed, winged dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Early Cretaceous of China and its implications for feather evolution|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=11775|issue=5|pages=11775|bibcode=2015NatSR...511775L|doi=10.1038/srep11775|doi-access=free|pmc=4504142|pmid=26181289}}</ref>

===Skull===
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|image1=Velociraptor rostrum (holotype).png

|image2=Velociraptor holotype skull (labelled).png

|image3=Velociraptor dentary (holotype).png

|footer=''V. mongoliensis'' holotype skull (right), rostrum (left), and dentary (bottom)

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The skull of ''Velociraptor'' was rather elongated and grew up to {{convert|23|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. It was uniquely up-curved at the snout region, concave on the upper surface, and convex on the lower surface. The snout, which occupied about 60% of the entire skull length, was notably narrow and mainly formed by the nasal, premaxilla, and maxilla bones. The {{dinogloss|premaxilla}} was the anteriormost bone in the skull, and it was longer than taller. While its posterior end joined the nasal, the main body of the premaxilla touched the maxilla. The {{dinogloss|maxilla}} was nearly triangular in shape and the largest element of the snout. On its center or main body, there was a depression developing a small oval to circular-shaped hole, called maxillary fenestra. Though in front of this fenestra were two small openings, referred to as promaxillary fenestrae. The posterior border of the maxilla formed (predominantly) the antorbital fenestra, one of the several large holes in the skull. Both premaxilla and maxilla had several [[Dental alveolus|alveoli]] ([[tooth]] sockets) on their bottom surfaces. Above the maxilla and making contact with the premaxilla, there was the {{dinogloss|nasal}} bone. It was a thin/narrow and elongated bone contributing to the top surface of the snout. Together, both premaxilla and nasal bones gave form to the naris or narial fenestra (nostril opening), which was relatively large and circular. The posterior end of the nasal was joined by the frontal and lacrimal bones.<ref name=Sues1977>{{cite journal |last1=Sues|first1=H.-D.|date=1977|title=The skull of Velociraptor mongoliensis, a small Cretaceous theropod dinosaur from Mongolia|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|volume=51|issue=3–4 |pages=173–184|doi=10.1007/BF02986567|bibcode=1977PalZ...51..173S |s2cid=128478862 }}</ref><ref name=barsboldosmolska1999>{{cite journal|last1=Barsbold|first1=R.|last2=Osmólska|first2=H.|date=1999|title=The skull of Velociraptor (Theropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia|journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica|volume=44|issue=2|pages=189–219|url=https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app44/app44-189.pdf|archive-date=14 July 2022|access-date=28 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714025149/https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app44/app44-189.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Velociraptor MPC-D 100 25 skull.png|thumb|left|Skull of MPC-D 100/25 ([[Fighting Dinosaurs]] individual), in lateral (A-C), top (B), bottom (D-E), and posterior (E) views]]
The back or anterior region of the skull was built by the frontal, lacrimal, postorbital, jugal, parietal, quadrate, and quadratojugal bones. The {{dinogloss|frontal}} was large element, having a vaguely rectangular shape when seen from above. On its posterior end, this bone was in contact with the {{dinogloss|parietal}}, and such elements were the main bodies of the [[skull roof]]. The {{dinogloss|lacrimal}} was a T-shaped bone and its main body was thin and delicated. Its lower end meet the {{dinogloss|jugal}} (often called cheek bone), which was a large, sub-triangular-shaped element. Its lower border was notably straight/horizontal. The {{dinogloss|postorbital}} was located just above the jugal: a stocky and strongly T-shaped bone. As a whole, the orbit or orbital fenestra (eye socket)—formed by the lacrimal, jugal, frontal, and postorbital—was large and near circular in shape, being longer than taller. When seen from above, a pair of large and markedly rounded holes were present near the rear of the skull (the temporal fenestrae), whose main components were the postorbital and squamosal. Behind the jugal, an inverted T-shaped bone (also seen in other dromaeosaurids), known as the {{dinogloss|quadratojugal}}, was developed. While the upper end of the quadratojugal joined the {{dinogloss|squamosal}}, an irregularly-shaped element, its inner side meet the {{dinogloss|quadrate}}. The latter was of great importance for the articulation with the lower jaw. The posteriormost bone was the {{dinogloss|occipital|occipital bone}} and its projection the [[occipital condyle]]: a rounded and bulbous protuberance that meet the first vertebra of the neck.<ref name=Sues1977/><ref name=barsboldosmolska1999/>
[[File:Velociraptor ZPAL MgD-I 97a tooth.png|thumb|140px|Isolated tooth of ZPAL MgD-I/97a]]
The lower jaw of ''Velociraptor'' comprised mainly the dentary, splenial, angular, surangular, and articular bones. The {{dinogloss|dentary}} was a very long, weakly curved, and narrow element that developed several alveoli on its top surface. On its posterior end, it meet the {{dinogloss|surangular}}. It had a small hole near its posterior end, called surangular foramen or fenestra. Both bones were the largest elements of the lower jaw of ''Velociraptor'', contributing to virtually its entire length. Below them were the smaller {{dinogloss|splenial}} and {{dinogloss|angular}}, closely articulated to each other. The {{dinogloss|articular}}, located on the inner side of the surangular, was a small element that joined the quadrate of the upper skull, enabling the articulation with the lower jaw. An elongated, near oval-shaped hole was developed in the center of the lower jaw (the mandibular fenestra), and it was produced by the joint of the dentary, surangular, and angular bones.<ref name=Sues1977/><ref name=barsboldosmolska1999/>

The teeth of ''Velociraptor'' were fairly [[homodont]] (equal in shape) and had several [[Denticle (tooth feature)|denticles]] (serrations), each more strongly serrated on the back edge than the front. The premaxilla had 4 alveoli (meaning that 4 teeth were developed), and the maxilla had 11 alveoli. At the dentary, between 14–15 alveoli were present. All teeth present at the premaxilla were poorly curved, and the two first teeth were the longest, with the second having a characteristic large size. The maxillary teeth were more slender, recurved, and most notably, the lower end was strongly more serrated than the upper one.<ref name=Sues1977/><ref name=barsboldosmolska1999/>

===Postcranial skeleton===
[[File:Velociraptor MPC-D 100 985 pes line.png|thumb|left|150px|Line diagram of the pes of ''V. mongoliensis'' (MPC-D 100/985)]]
The arm of ''Velociraptor'' was formed by the [[humerus]] (upper arm bone), [[Radius (bone)|radius]] and [[ulna]] (forearm bones), and [[Manus (zoology)|manus]] (hand). ''Velociraptor'', like other dromaeosaurids, had a large manus with three elongated [[Digit (anatomy)|digit]]s (fingers), which ended up in strongly curved unguals (claw bones) that were similar in construction and flexibility to the wing bones of modern [[bird]]s. The second digit was the longest of the three digits present, while the first was shortest. The structure of the [[carpal]] (wrist) bones prevented [[pronation]] of the wrist and forced the manus to be held with the [[Anatomical terms of location|palmar]] surface facing inward ([[Lateral and medial|medially]]), not downward. The [[Pes (anatomy)|pes]] (foot) anatomy of ''Velociraptor'' consisted of the metatarsus—a large element composed of three metatarsals of which the first one was extremely reduced in size—and four digits that developed large unguals. The first digit, as in other theropods, was a small [[dewclaw]]. The second digit, for which ''Velociraptor'' is most famous, was highly modified and held retracted off the ground, which caused ''Velociraptor'' and other dromaeosaurids to walk on only their third and fourth digits. It bore a relatively large, sickle-shaped claw, typical of dromaeosaurid and [[troodontid]] dinosaurs. This enlarged claw, which could grow to over {{convert|6.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long around its outer edge, was most likely a predatory device used to restrain struggling prey.<ref name=norellmakovicky1997/><ref name=norellmakovicky1999/>
[[File:Velociraptor.jpg|thumb|Skeletal reconstruction of ''V. mongoliensis'' (MPC-D 100/25)]]
As in other dromaeosaurs, ''Velociraptor'' tails had [[prezygapophysis|prezygapophyses]] (long bony projections) on the upper surfaces of the [[vertebra]]e, as well as [[ossification|ossified]] [[tendon]]s underneath. The prezygapophyses began on the tenth tail (caudal) vertebra and extended forward to brace four to ten additional vertebrae, depending on position in the tail. These were once thought to fully stiffen the tail, forcing the entire tail to act as a single rod-like unit. However, at least one specimen has preserved a series of intact tail vertebrae curved sideways into an ''S''-shape, suggesting that there was considerably more horizontal flexibility than once thought.<ref name=norellmakovicky1997/><ref name=norellmakovicky1999>{{cite journal|last1=Norell |first1=Mark A. |last2=Makovicky |first2=Peter J. |year=1999 |title=Important features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton II: information from newly collected specimens of ''Velociraptor mongoliensis'' |journal=American Museum Novitates |issue=3282 |pages=1–45 |hdl=2246/3025}}</ref><ref name=fowler2011/>