Editing Vivisection (section)

=== Anti-vivisection movement ===
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Anti-vivisectionists have played roles in the emergence of the [[animal welfare]] and [[animal rights]] movements, arguing that animals and humans have the same [[natural rights]] as living creatures, and that it is inherently immoral to inflict pain or injury on another living creature, regardless of the purpose or potential benefit to mankind.<ref name="Yarri" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Carroll, Lewis|author-link=Lewis Carroll|title=Some popular fallacies about vivisection|journal=[[The Fortnightly Review]]|date=June 1875|volume=17|pages=847–854|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3cQRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA847|access-date=2016-10-13|archive-date=2012-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109083457/http://books.google.com/books?id=3cQRAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== 19th century ====
At the turn of the 19th century, medicine was undergoing a transformation. The emergence of hospitals and the development of more advanced medical tools such as the stethoscope are but a few of the changes in the medical field.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Franco|first=Nuno Henrique|date=2013-03-19|title=Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective|journal=Animals|volume=3|issue=1|pages=238–273|doi=10.3390/ani3010238|issn=2076-2615|pmc=4495509|pmid=26487317|doi-access=free}}</ref> There was also an increased recognition that medical practices needed to be improved, as many of the current therapeutics were based on unproven, traditional theories that may or may not have helped the patient recover. The demand for more effective treatment shifted emphasis to research with the goal of understanding disease mechanisms and anatomy.<ref name=":0" /> This shift had a few effects, one of which was the rise in patient experimentation, leading to some moral questions about what was acceptable in clinical trials and what was not. An easy solution to the moral problem was to use animals in vivisection experiments, so as not to endanger human patients. This, however, had its own set of moral obstacles, leading to the anti-vivisection movement.<ref name=":0" />

===== François Magendie (1783–1855) =====
[[File:"Away with that life-net!" - Kep. LCCN2011648878 (cropped).jpg|thumb|420x420px|Pro-vivisection cartoon in 1911]]
One polarizing figure in the anti-vivisection movement was [[François Magendie]]. Magendie was a physiologist at the Académie Royale de Médecine in France, established in the first half of the 19th century.<ref name=":0" /> Magendie made several groundbreaking medical discoveries, but was far more aggressive than some of his contemporaries in the use of animal experimentation. For example, the discovery of the different functionalities of dorsal and ventral spinal nerve roots was achieved by both Magendie, as well as a Scottish anatomist named [[Charles Bell]]. Bell used an unconscious rabbit because of "the protracted cruelty of the dissection", which caused him to miss that the dorsal roots were also responsible for sensory information. Magendie, on the other hand, used conscious, six-week-old puppies for his own experiments.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://brebisnoire.wordpress.com/a-history-of-antivivisection-from-the-1800s-to-the-present-part-i-mid-1800s-to-1914/|title=A History of Antivivisection from the 1800s to the Present: Part I (mid-1800s to 1914)|date=2009-06-10|work=the black ewe|access-date=2017-04-20|language=en-US|archive-date=2017-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802100448/https://brebisnoire.wordpress.com/a-history-of-antivivisection-from-the-1800s-to-the-present-part-i-mid-1800s-to-1914/|url-status=live}}</ref>  While Magendie's approach would today be considered an abuse of animal rights, both Bell and Magendie used the same rationalization for vivisection: the cost of animal experimentation being worth it for the benefit of humanity.<ref name=":1" />

Many{{who|date=June 2024}} viewed Magendie's work as cruel and unnecessarily torturous. One note is that Magendie carried out many of his experiments before the advent of anesthesia, but even after ether was discovered it was not used in any of his experiments or classes.<ref name=":0" /> Even during the period before anesthesia, other physiologists{{who|date=June 2024}} expressed their disgust with how he conducted his work. One such visiting American physiologist describes the animals as "victims" and the apparent sadism that Magendie displayed when teaching his classes.{{verify quote|date=June 2024}} Magendie's experiments were cited in the drafting of the British Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 and [[Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822]], otherwise known as Martin's Act.<ref name=":0" /> The latter bill's namesake, Irish [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and well known anti-cruelty campaigner [[Richard Martin (Irish politician)|Richard Martin]], called Magendie a "disgrace to Society" and his public vivisections "anatomical theatres" following a prolonged dissection of a greyhound which attracted wide public comment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leffingwell |first=Albert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3145143 |title=An ethical problem: or, Sidelights upon scientific experimentation on man and animals |publisher=G. Bell and Sons; C. P. Farrell |year=1916 |edition=2nd, revised |location=London; New York |language=English |oclc=3145143 |quote=practices, equally cruel, with which he thought the legislature ought to interfere. There was a Frenchman by the name of Magendie, whom he considered a disgrace to Society. In the course of the last year this man, at one of his anatomical theatres, exhibited a series of experiments so atrocious as almost to shock belief. This M. Magendie got a lady's greyhound. First of all he nailed its front, and then its hind, paws with the bluntest spikes that he could find, giving as reason that the poor beast, in its agony, might tear away from the spikes if they were at all sharp or cutting. He then doubled up its long ears, and nailed them down with similar spikes. (Cries of `Shame!') He then made a gash down the middle of the face, and proceeded to dissect all the nerves on one side of it.... After he had finished these operations, this surgical butcher then turned to the spectators, and said: `I have now finished my operations on one side of this dog's head, and I shall reserve the other side till to-morrow. If the servant takes care of him for the night, I am of the opinion that I shall be able to continue my operations upon him to-morrow with as much satisfaction to us all as I have done to-day; but if not, ALTHOUGH HE MAY HAVE LOST THE VIVACITY HE HAS SHOWN TO-DAY, I shall have the opportunity of cutting him up alive, and showing you the motion of the heart.' Mr. Martin added that he held in his hands the written declarations of Mr. Abernethy, of Sir Everard Home (and of other distinguished medical men), all uniting in condemnation of such excessive and protracted cruelty as had been practised by this Frenchman." {1} Hansard's Parliamentary Reports, February 24, 1825. |access-date=August 13, 2022 |archive-date=August 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813182833/https://www.worldcat.org/title/ethical-problem-or-sidelights-upon-scientific-experimentation-on-man-and-animals/oclc/3145143 |url-status=live }}</ref> Magendie faced widespread opposition in British society, among the general public but also his contemporaries, including [[William Sharpey]] who described his experiments aside from cruel as "purposeless" and "without sufficient object", a feeling he claimed was shared among other physiologists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leffingwell |first=Albert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3145143 |title=An ethical problem: or, Sidelights upon scientific experimentation on man and animals |date=1916 |publisher=G. Bell and Sons; C.P. Farrell |location=London; New York |language=English |oclc=3145143 |quote=Another witness of Magendie's cruelty was Dr. William Sharpey, LL.D., Fellow of the Royal Society, and for more than thirty years the professor of physiology in University College, London. ... Before the Royal Commission on Vivisection, in 1876, he gave the following account of his personal experience: "When I was a very young man, studying in Paris, I went to the first of a series of lectures which Magendie gave upon experimental physiology; and I was so utterly repelled by what I witnessed that I never went again. In the first place, they were painful (in those days there were no anaesthetics), and sometimes they were severe; and then THEY WERE WITHOUT SUFFICIENT OBJECT. For example, Magendie made incisions into the skin of rabbits and other creatures TO SHOW THAT THE SKIN IS SENSITIVE! Surely all the world knows the skin is sensitive; no experiment is wanted to prove that. Several experiments he made were of a similar character, AND HE PUT THE ANIMALS TO DEATH, FINALLY, IN A VERY PAINFUL WAY.... Some of his experiments excited a strong feeling of abhorrence, not in the public merely, but among physiologists. There was his--I was going to say `famous' experiment; it might rather have been called `INFAMOUS' experiment upon vomiting .... Besides its atrocity, it was really purposeless." [2] Evidence before Royal Commission, 1875, Questions 444, 474. |access-date=2022-08-13 |archive-date=2022-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813182833/https://www.worldcat.org/title/ethical-problem-or-sidelights-upon-scientific-experimentation-on-man-and-animals/oclc/3145143 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== David Ferrier and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 =====
[[File:Frog vivisection.jpg|thumb|Prior to vivisection for educational purposes, [[chloroform]] was administered as an [[anesthetic]] to this [[Common Sand Frog|common sand frog]].]]
The [[Cruelty to Animals Act, 1876]] in Britain determined that one could only conduct vivisection on animals with the appropriate license from the state, and that the work the physiologist was doing had to be original and absolutely necessary.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Finn|first1=Michael A.|last2=Stark|first2=James F.|date=2015-02-01|title=Medical science and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876: A re-examination of anti-vivisectionism in provincial Britain|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/83097/3/Vivisection_Studies_FINAL_REVISIED_VERSION_October_2014.pdf|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences|volume=49|pages=12–23|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2014.10.007|pmid=25437634|access-date=2019-09-23|archive-date=2020-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123170036/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/83097/3/Vivisection_Studies_FINAL_REVISIED_VERSION_October_2014.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The stage was set for such legislation by physiologist [[David Ferrier]]. Ferrier was a pioneer in understanding the brain and used animals to show that certain locales of the brain corresponded to bodily movement elsewhere in the body in 1873. He put these animals to sleep, and caused them to move unconsciously with a probe. Ferrier was successful, but many decried his use of animals in his experiments. Some of these arguments came from a religious standpoint. Some were concerned that Ferrier's experiments would separate God from the mind of man in the name of science.<ref name=":2" /> Some of the anti-vivisection movement in England had its roots in Evangelicalism and Quakerism. These religions already had a distrust for science, only intensified by the recent publishing of Darwin's Theory of Evolution in 1859.<ref name=":1" />

Neither side was pleased with how the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed. The scientific community felt as though the government was restricting their ability to compete with the quickly advancing France and Germany with new regulations. The anti-vivisection movement was also unhappy, but because they believed that it was a concession to scientists for allowing vivisection to continue at all.<ref name=":2" /> Ferrier would continue to vex the anti-vivisection movement in Britain with his experiments when he had a debate with his German opponent, Friedrich Goltz. They would effectively enter the vivisection arena, with Ferrier presenting a monkey, and Goltz presenting a dog, both of which had already been operated on. Ferrier won the debate, but did not have a license, leading the anti-vivisection movement to sue him in 1881. Ferrier was not found guilty, as his assistant was the one operating, and his assistant did have a license.<ref name=":2" /> Ferrier and his practices gained public support, leaving the anti-vivisection movement scrambling. They made the moral argument that given recent developments, scientists would venture into more extreme practices to operating on "the cripple, the mute, the idiot, the convict, the pauper, to enhance the 'interest' of [the physiologist's] experiments".<ref name=":2" />

==== 20th century ====
In the early 20th-century the anti-vivisection movement attracted many female supporters associated with [[women's suffrage]].<ref name="Ross 2014">{{cite journal|author=Ross, Karen|year=2014|title=Winning Women's Votes: Defending Animal Experimentation and Women's Clubs in New York, 1920–1930|journal=New York History|volume=95|issue=1|pages=26–40|doi=10.1353/nyh.2014.0050 }}</ref> The [[American Anti-Vivisection Society]] advocated total abolition of vivisection whilst others such as the [[American Society for the Regulation of Vivisection]] wanted better regulation subjected to surveillance, not full prohibition.<ref name="Ross 2014"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=Recarte|first=Claudia Alonso|date=2014|title=The Vivisection Controversy in America|url=https://institutofranklin.net/sites/default/files/2021-03/Vivisection-in-america-Case-Study-DEF.pdf|website=Franklin Institute|language=en-GB|archive-date=March 31, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331233154/https://institutofranklin.net/sites/default/files/2021-03/Vivisection-in-america-Case-Study-DEF.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Research Defence Society]] made up of an all-male group of physiologists was founded in 1908 to defend vivisection.<ref>Bates, A. W. H. (2017). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513714/ ''The Research Defence Society: Mobilizing the Medical Profession for Materialist Science in the Early-Twentieth Century'']. In Anti-Vivisection and the Profession of Medicine in Britain: A Social History. Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> In the 1920s, anti-vivisectionists exerted significant influence over the editorial decisions of medical journals.<ref name="Ross 2014"/>