Editing William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe (section)

==American War of Independence==
{{main|American War of Independence#British strategy}}

Howe was first sent to [[Boston]]. Privately, he did not agree with the policy of the government towards the colonists, and regretted in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the memory of his brother George was still cherished by the inhabitants, and General Gage, in whom he had no confidence, was commander-in-chief.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Along with fellow [[British Army]] Generals Clinton and Burgoyne, Howe arrived there aboard {{HMS|Cerberus|1758|6}} on 25 May 1775, having learned en route that war had broken out with the skirmishes at the marches to [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] in April.<ref name=noaa>{{cite web| url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08auvfest/background/history/history.html |title=The History of the HMS ''Cerberus'' and HMS ''Lark''|author1=Kathy Abbass |author2=Rod Mather |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The ''Cerberus'' provided naval reinforcement at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]].<ref name=noaa /> He led a force of 4,000 troops sent to reinforce the 5,000 troops under General [[Thomas Gage]] who were [[Siege of Boston|besieged in the city]] after those battles.<ref name=K2/> Gage, Howe, and Generals Clinton and Burgoyne discussed plans to break the siege. They formulated a plan to seize high ground around Boston and attack the besieging colonial militia forces, setting its execution for 18 June.<ref>Ketchum (1999), p. 46.</ref> However, the colonists learned of the plan and fortified the heights of [[Breed's Hill]] and nearby [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Bunker Hill]] on the Charlestown peninsula across the [[Charles River]] from Boston on the night of 16–17 June,<ref>Ketchum (1999), pp. 110–111.</ref> forcing the British leadership to rethink their strategy.

===Bunker Hill and Boston===
{{Main|Battle of Bunker Hill|Boston campaign}}

In a war council held early on 17 June, the generals developed a plan calling for a direct assault on the colonial fortification, and Gage gave Howe command of the operation. Despite a sense of urgency (the colonists were still working on the fortifications at the time of the council), the attack, now known as the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], did not begin until that afternoon.<ref>Willcox, p. 48.</ref> With Howe personally leading the right wing of the attack, the first two assaults were firmly repulsed by the colonial defenders. Howe's third assault gained the objective, but the cost of the day's battle was appallingly heavy.<ref>Ketchum (1999), pp. 151–183.</ref> The British casualties, more than 1,000 killed or wounded, were the highest of any engagement in the war.<ref>Brooks, p. 237.</ref> Howe described it as a "success ... too dearly bought."<ref name=Bil47>Billias, p. 47.</ref> Although Howe exhibited courage on the battlefield, his tactics and overwhelming confidence were criticised. One subordinate wrote that Howe's "absurd and destructive confidence" played a role in the number of casualties incurred.<ref name=Bil47/>

[[File:Battle of bunker hill by percy moran.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]] by [[Percy Moran]], 1909]]
Although Howe was not injured in the battle, it had a pronounced effect on his spirit. According to British historian [[George Otto Trevelyan]], the battle "exercised a permanent and most potent influence" especially on Howe's behaviour, and that Howe's military skills thereafter "were apt to fail him at the very moment when they were especially wanted."<ref>Trevelyan, p. 1:338.</ref> Despite an outward appearance of confidence and popularity with his troops, the "genial six-footer with a face some people described as 'coarse{{'"}}, privately often exhibited a lack of self-confidence, and in later campaigns became somewhat dependent on his older brother Richard (the admiral in the [[Royal Navy]], also on station in the Colonies) for advice and approval.<ref>Fleming, p. 44.</ref>

On 11 October 1775, [[Thomas Gage|General Gage]] sailed for England, and Howe took over as [[Commander-in-Chief, North America#Commanders-in-Chief, America 1775–1783|Commander-in-Chief of British land forces]] in America.<ref>Ketchum (1999), p. 213.</ref> British military planners in London had, with the outbreak of hostilities, begun planning a massive reinforcement of the troops in North America. Their plans, made with recommendations from Howe, called for the abandonment of Boston and the establishment of bases in New York and [[Newport, Rhode Island]] in an attempt to isolate the rebellion to New England.<ref>Gruber, p. 82.</ref> When orders arrived in November to execute these plans, Howe opted to remain in Boston for the winter and begin the campaign in 1776.<ref name=Bil47/> As a result, the remainder of the [[Siege of Boston]] was largely a stalemate. Howe never attempted a major engagement with the [[Continental Army]], which had come under the command of Major General [[George Washington]].<ref name=Bil48>Billias, p. 48.</ref> He did, however, spend a fair amount of time at the gambling tables, and allegedly established a relationship with Elizabeth Lloyd Loring, the wife of Loyalist [[Joshua Loring|Joshua Loring, Jr.]] Loring apparently acquiesced to this arrangement, and was rewarded by Howe with the position of commissary of prisoners.<ref>Fischer, p. 72.</ref> Contemporaries and historians have criticised Howe for both his gambling and the amount of time he supposedly spent with Mrs. Loring, with some going so far as to level accusations that this behaviour interfered with his military activities; historian John Alden does not give these ideas credence.<ref>Alden (1989), p. 504.</ref> The alleged relationship is also mentioned in ''[[The Battle of the Kegs]]'', an American propaganda ballad written by [[Francis Hopkinson]]. In January 1776 Howe's role as commander in chief was cemented with a promotion to full general in North America.<ref name=Hadden375>Hadden, p. 375.</ref>

The siege was broken in March 1776 when Continental Army Colonel [[Henry Knox]] brought [[Noble train of artillery|heavy artillery from Fort Ticonderoga]] to Boston during the winter, and General Washington used them to [[Fortification of Dorchester Heights|fortify Dorchester Heights]], overlooking Boston and its harbour.<ref>Ketchum (1999), pp. 214–217.</ref> Howe at first planned an assault on this position, but a snowstorm interfered, and he eventually decided to withdraw from Boston.<ref>Ketchum (1999), p. 218.</ref> On 17 March, British troops and Loyalists [[Evacuation Day (Massachusetts)|evacuated the city]], and sailed for [[City of Halifax|Halifax, Nova Scotia]].<ref name=Bil48/>

===New York campaign===
{{Main|New York and New Jersey campaign}}

[[File:Towhiteplains.JPG|200px|thumb|right|A period map depicting the British Army movements in [[Westchester County, New York]]]]

Howe and his troops began to arrive outside [[New York Harbor|New York Harbour]] and made an uncontested landing on [[Staten Island]] to the west in early July.<ref>Fischer, p. 32.</ref> Howe, whose orders from [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|Lord George Germain]], the Secretary of State responsible for directing the war from Westminster, were fairly clear that he should avoid conflict before the arrival of reinforcements, then waited until those reinforcements arrived in mid-August, along with the naval commander, his brother Richard.<ref>Gruber, p. 84.</ref><ref name=Bil51>Billias, p. 51.</ref> This delay proved to be somewhat costly, since the Americans used this time to improve fortifications on northwestern [[Long Island]] (at [[Brooklyn Heights]] along the [[East River (New York)|East River]] shoreline) and increased the size of their [[Continental Army]] with additional militia.<ref name=Bil51/> After moving most of his army by amphibious barges across the [[The Narrows|Verazzano Narrows]] to southwestern Long Island without opposition, he attacked the American positions on 27 August in what became known as the [[Battle of Long Island]]. In a well-executed manoeuvre, a large column led by Howe and Clinton passed around the American left flank and through the lightly guarded [[Jamaica Pass]] far to the east (a ridge of hills running east to west bisected the island, with a series of lower entrances that were all guarded by Continentals except inexplicably to the farthest east at Jamaica), catching the Patriots off-guard and routing the Americans from their forward positions back into the entrenchments on Brooklyn Heights. Despite the urging of Clinton and others, Howe decided against an immediate assault on these fortifications, claiming "the Troops had for that day done handsomely enough."<ref name=Bil53/> He instead began siege operations, methodically advancing on the entrenched Americans.<ref>Fischer, p. 99.</ref> This decision allowed General Washington to successfully orchestrate a nighttime strategic [[Withdrawal (military)|withdrawal]] across the [[East River (New York)|East River]] on the night of 29–30 August, aided by a thick morning fog.<ref>Fischer, pp. 100–101.</ref> Historian George Bilias notes that had Howe attacked Brooklyn Heights, the capture of even half of Washington's army, and possibly Washington himself, might have had a significant effect on the rebellion.<ref name=Bil53>Billias, p. 53.</ref> Some officers, notably General Clinton, were critical of Howe's decision not to storm the American works.<ref>Gruber, p. 114.</ref> Howe was [[Order of the Bath|knighted]] as a reward for his victory on Long Island.<ref name=Hadden375/>

Howe and his brother Richard had, as part of their instructions, been assigned roles as peace commissioners, with limited authority to treat with the rebels. After Long Island, they pursued an attempt at reconciliation, sending the captured General [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] to Philadelphia with a proposal for a peace conference. [[Staten Island Peace Conference|The meeting that resulted]], conducted by Admiral Howe, was unsuccessful. The Howes had been given limited powers, as had the Congressional representatives, and the latter were insistent that the British recognise the recently declared [[United States Declaration of Independence|colonial independence]]. This was not within the Howes' powers, so the conference failed, and Howe then continued the campaign.<ref>Gruber, pp. 116–119.</ref> He first [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed troops on Manhattan]] on 15 September and occupied New York City (which then covered only Lower Manhattan), although his advance northward on Upper Manhattan was checked the next day [[Battle of Harlem Heights|at Harlem Heights]].<ref>Leckie, pp. 277–278.</ref> He paused, spending nearly one month consolidating control of New York City and awaiting reinforcements.<ref>Gruber, p. 127.</ref> During this time he ordered the execution of [[Nathan Hale]] for espionage and had to deal with the effects of a [[Great Fire of New York (1776)|major fire]] in the city.<ref>Fischer, pp. 106–108.</ref> He then attempted a landing on the mainland at [[Throgs Neck]], intending to flank Washington's position at Harlem Heights. However, the narrow causeway between the beach and the mainland was well-defended, and he ended up withdrawing the troops.<ref>Gruber, pp. 129–131.</ref> He made a successful [[Battle of Pell's Point|landing of troops at Pell's Point]] in [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]], but Washington managed to avoid being flanked, retreating to [[White Plains, New York|White Plains]].<ref>Gruber, pp. 131–132.</ref> Howe successfully forced Washington out of the New York area in the 28 October [[Battle of White Plains]], and then turned his attention to consolidate British hold on Manhattan.<ref>Fischer, pp. 110–111.</ref> In November he attacked the remaining Continental Army stronghold in the [[Battle of Fort Washington]], taking several thousand prisoners.<ref>Fischer, p. 113.</ref>

[[file:George Washington, 1776.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[George Washington]], driven from New York beginning at the [[Battle of Brooklyn]]<br /> <small>portrait by [[Charles Wilson Peale]] ''1776''</small>]]

Washington then retreated across New Jersey, followed by Howe's advance forces under [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]].<ref>Fischer, pp. 117–132.</ref> At this point, Howe prepared troops under the command of General Clinton for embarkation to occupy Newport, the other major goal of his plan. Clinton proposed that these troops instead be landed in New Jersey, either opposite Staten Island or on the [[Delaware River]], trapping Washington or even capturing the seat of the Continental Congress, [[Philadelphia]].<ref>Gruber, p. 135.</ref> Howe rejected these proposals, despatching Clinton and General [[Hugh Percy, 2nd Duke of Northumberland|Hugh, Earl Percy]], two vocal critics of his leadership, to take Newport.<ref>Fredriksen, p. 386.</ref> In early December, Howe came to [[Trenton, New Jersey]] to arrange the disposition of his troops for the winter. Washington had retreated all the way across the Delaware, and Howe returned to New York, believing the campaign to be ended for the season.<ref>Gruber, pp. 137–138.</ref> When Washington [[Battle of Trenton|attacked the Hessian quarters at Trenton]] on 26 December 1776, Howe sent Cornwallis to reform the army in New Jersey and chase after Washington.<ref>Fischer, pp. 259–295.</ref> Cornwallis was frustrated in this, with Washington [[Battle of the Assunpink Creek|gaining a second victory at Trenton]] and [[Battle of Princeton|a third at Princeton]]. Howe recalled the army to positions much closer to New York for the winter.<ref>Gruber, pp. 154–156.</ref>

Howe has been criticised by contemporaries and historians for failing to decisively defeat the Continental Army during the New York campaign. Contemporaries complained that his landing in Westchester failed to trap Washington, but failed to understand that his goal in the campaign was to secure Manhattan, and not necessarily to defeat Washington.<ref>Gruber, p. 133.</ref> However, historian George Billias observes that Howe's overly rigid adherence to his plans meant that he was unable to capitalise on the opportunities that arose during the campaign for a decisive action.<ref>Billias, p. 55.</ref>

===Philadelphia campaign===
{{Main|Philadelphia campaign}}

On 30 November 1776, as Washington was retreating across New Jersey, Howe had written to Germain with plans for the 1777 campaign season. He proposed to send a 10,000-man force up the [[Hudson River]] to capture [[Albany, New York]], in conjunction with an expedition sent south from [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]. He again wrote to Germain on 20 December 1776 with more elaborate proposals for 1777. These again included operations to gain control of the Hudson River, and included expanded operations from the base at Newport, and an expedition to take Philadelphia. The latter Howe saw as attractive, since Washington was then just north of the city: Howe wrote that he was "persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively [against Philadelphia], where the enemy's chief strength lies."<ref>Ketchum (1997), p. 81.</ref> Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly "well digested", but it called for more men than Germain was prepared to provide.<ref>Martin, p. 11.</ref> After the setbacks in New Jersey, Howe in mid-January 1777 proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea-based attack, thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army.<ref>Gruber, p. 183.</ref> This plan was developed to the extent that in April, Howe's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges; Washington, lodged in his winter quarters at [[Morristown, New Jersey]], thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River.<ref>Ketchum (1997), p. 61.</ref> However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: "I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies."<ref>Mintz, p. 117.</ref>

[[File:WilliamHowe1777ColorMezzotint.jpeg|thumb|left|upright|A 1777 mezzotint of Howe]]

When the campaign season opened in May 1777, General Washington moved most of his army from its winter quarters in [[Morristown, New Jersey]] to a [[Middlebrook encampment|strongly fortified position]] in the [[Watchung Mountains]].<ref>Martin, p. 22.</ref> In June 1777, Howe began a series of odd moves in New Jersey, apparently in an attempt to draw Washington and his army out of that position onto terrain more favourable for a general engagement.<ref>Martin, pp. 23–27.</ref> His motives for this are uncertain; historian John Buchanan argues that Howe was determined to attempt to draw Washington into a major engagement while both were in northern New Jersey, writing that "Washington's shift in position had whetted Howe's appetite for a major action when, if everything went right, he would finally accomplish what he and his brother's policies had denied him the previous year: the destruction of the Continental Army",<ref>Buchanan, p. 206.</ref> but that Howe's underlying campaign goal for the season was Philadelphia.<ref>Buchanan, pp. 198–199.</ref> One British major wrote that "[t]he report circulated by those in power is that it was thought necessary to march to Hilsborough{{sic}} to ''offer Washington battle.''"<ref name=McG39>McGuire, p. 39.</ref> Americans like [[Henry Knox]] were perplexed but also concluded that was its purpose: "It was unaccountable that [the British] should stop short when they had gone only nine miles ... In the course of a day or two [we] discovered that they ... had come out with an intention of drawing us into the plain."<ref name=McG39/> Washington had intelligence that Howe had moved without taking the heavy river-crossing equipment, and was apparently not fooled at all.<ref>Martin, p. 23.</ref>

When Washington refused to take the bait, Howe withdrew the army to [[Perth Amboy]], under harassment by Colonel [[Daniel Morgan]]'s skirmisher unit, [[Morgan's Riflemen]], who used their superior weapons to snipe at and harry his forces as they moved. Washington moved down to a more exposed position, assuming Howe was going to embark his army on ships. Howe then launched a lightning strike designed to cut Washington's retreat off. This attempt was foiled by the [[Battle of Short Hills]], which gave Washington time to retreat to a more secure position. Howe then did in fact embark his army and sailed south with his brother's fleet. Howe maintained an effective secrecy surrounding the fleet's destination: not only did Washington not know where it was going, neither did many British rank and file.<ref>Martin, pp. 24–31.</ref>

Howe's campaign for Philadelphia began with an amphibious landing at [[Head of Elk, Maryland]], southwest of the city in late August. Although Howe would have preferred to make a landing on the Delaware River below Philadelphia, reports of well-prepared defences dissuaded him, and the fleet spent almost an entire extra month at sea to reach Head of Elk.<ref>Billias, pp. 60–61.</ref> Howe's army left Head of Elk early on 3 September 1777 and pushed back an advance guard of American light infantry at [[Battle of Cooch's Bridge|Cooch's Bridge]]. On 11 September 1777, Howe's army met Washington's near [[Chadds Ford]] along the [[Brandywine Creek (Christina River)|Brandywine Creek]] in the [[Battle of Brandywine]]. Howe established his headquarters at the [[Gilpin Homestead]], where it stayed until the morning of 16 September.<ref name="arch">{{cite web| url = https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce/SelectWelcome.asp| title = National Historic Landmarks & National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania| publisher = CRGIS: Cultural Resources Geographic Information System| format = Searchable database| access-date = 6 January 2012| archive-date = 21 July 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070721014609/https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce/SelectWelcome.asp| url-status = dead}} ''Note:'' This includes {{cite web| url = https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce_imagery/phmc_scans/H000720_01H.pdf| title = National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Gilpin Homestead| access-date = 6 January 2012| author = Pennsylvania Register of Historic Sites and Landmarks| date = August 1971}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In a reprise of earlier battles, Howe once again flanked the Continental Army position and forced Washington to retreat after inflicting heavy casualties.<ref>Gruber, pp. 240–241.</ref>

After two weeks of manoeuvre and engagements (including [[Battle of the Clouds|The Battle of the Clouds]], [[Battle of Paoli|The Battle of Paoli]], and an engagement at Valley Forge where [[Alexander Hamilton]] was nearly killed in action), Howe triumphantly entered the city on 26 September.<ref>Gruber, p. 241.</ref> The reception Howe received was not quite what he had expected, however. He had been led to believe that "Friends thicker than Woods" would greet him upon his arrival; he instead was greeted by women, children, and many deserted houses.<ref>Gruber, p. 242.</ref> Despite Howe's best attempts to minimise any misconduct by his troops (he authorised the execution of violators of his orders against it), marauding soldiers greatly impacted the public opinion of his army.<ref>Gruber, p. 243.</ref>

One week after Howe entered Philadelphia, on 4 October, Washington made a [[Battle of Germantown|dawn attack on the British garrison at Germantown]]. He came close to winning the battle before being repulsed by belated reinforcements sent from the city.<ref>Martin, pp. 99–120.</ref> This forced Howe to withdraw his troops a little closer to the city, where they were also needed to help clear the American Delaware River defences, which were preventing the navy from resupplying the army. It was late November before this task was accomplished, which included a poorly executed [[Battle of Red Bank|attack on Fort Mercer]] by a division of Hessians commanded by Colonel [[Carl von Donop|von Donop]] and an advance fleet commanded by Admiral [[Francis Reynolds-Moreton (Royal Navy officer)|Francis Reynolds]].<ref>Gruber, pp. 247–260.</ref>

===Impact on Burgoyne's campaign===

[[File:PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Howe made the Masters-Penn mansion his headquarters during the 1777–1778 British occupation of [[Philadelphia]]. It later served as the [[President's House (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)|presidential mansion]] of George Washington and [[John Adams]], 1790–1800.]]

Concomitant with Howe's campaign, General Burgoyne led [[Saratoga campaign|his expedition]] south from [[Montreal]] to capture Albany.<ref name=Grif369/> Burgoyne's advance was stopped in the [[Battles of Saratoga]] in September and October, and he surrendered his army on 17 October. Burgoyne's surrender, coupled with Howe's near defeat at Germantown, dramatically altered the strategic balance of the conflict.<ref>Mintz, p. 234<!--importance of Saratoga--></ref><ref>Trevelyan, p. 3:249<!--importance of Germantown--></ref> Support for the [[Continental Congress]], suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was strengthened, and the victory encouraged France to [[Franco-American alliance|enter the war]] against Britain.<ref>Ketchum (1997), pp. 446–447.</ref> Burgoyne's loss also further weakened the [[North Ministry|British government]] of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]].<ref>Ketchum (1997), p. 442.</ref>

Burgoyne made his advance under the assumption that he would be met in Albany by Howe or troops sent by Howe.<ref name=Grif369/> Burgoyne was apparently not aware that Howe's plans had evolved as they had. Although Germain knew what Howe's plans were, whether he communicated them to Burgoyne is unclear. Some sources claim he did<ref>Ketchum (1997), p. 84.</ref> while others state that Burgoyne was not notified of the changes until the campaign was well underway.<ref name=Grif369>Griffith, p. 369.</ref> Whether Germain, Howe and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear. Some historians argue that Howe failed to follow instructions and essentially abandoned Burgoyne's army, while others suggest that Burgoyne failed on his own and then tried to shift the blame to Howe and Clinton.<ref>Boatner, pp. 134–135.</ref>

Howe's decision to focus his own activity on an expedition to Philadelphia may have been motivated by competition with General Burgoyne, who was given command of the northern force despite lobbying by Howe for its command to be given to Clinton.<ref>Mintz, p. 124.</ref> John Alden notes the jealousies among the British leaders, saying, "It is likely that [Howe] was as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown."<ref>Alden (1954), p. 118.</ref> Along the same lines historian [[Don Higginbotham]] concludes that in Howe's view, "It [the northern campaign] was Burgoyne's whole show, and consequently he [Howe] wanted little to do with it. With regard to Burgoyne's army, he would do only what was required of him (virtually nothing)."<ref>Higginbotham, p. 180.</ref>

Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on 17 July that he intended to stay close to Washington: "My intention is for Pennsylvania, where I expect to meet Washington, but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations, and you can keep him at bay, be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you." This suggested that Howe would follow Washington if he went north to assist in the defence of the Hudson.<ref>Mintz, p. 164.</ref> Howe, however, sailed from New York on 23 July.<ref>Martin, p. 31.</ref> On 30 August, shortly after his arrival at Head of Elk, Howe wrote to Germain that he would be unable to assist Burgoyne, citing a lack of Loyalist support in the Philadelphia area.<ref>Pancake, p. 167.</ref>
A small force sent north from New York by General Clinton in early October was also unable to assist Burgoyne.<ref>Ketchum (1997), p. 385.</ref>

===Resignation===
[[Image:MischianzaTicket.png|thumb|left|Artwork on the tickets to the ''[[Mischianza]]'']]

In October 1777 Howe sent his letter of resignation to London, complaining that he had been inadequately supported in that year's campaigns.<ref name=DNB/> He was finally notified in April 1778 that his resignation was accepted. A grand party, known as the "[[Mischianza]]", was thrown for the departing general on 18 May. Organized by his aides [[John André]] and [[Oliver De Lancey Jr.]], the party featured a grand parade, fireworks, and dancing until dawn.<ref>Martin, p. 181.</ref> Washington, aware that the British were planning to evacuate Philadelphia, sent the [[Marquis de Lafayette]] out with a small force on the night of the party to determine British movements. This movement was noticed by alert British troops, and Howe ordered a column out to entrap the marquis. In the [[Battle of Barren Hill]], Lafayette escaped the trap with minimal casualties.<ref>Martin, pp. 182–186.</ref>

On 24 May, the day Howe sailed for England, General Clinton took over as [[Commander-in-Chief, North America|commander-in-chief of British armies in America]], and made preparations for an overland march to New York.<ref>Martin, p. 198.</ref> Howe arrived back in England on 1 July,<ref>Gruber, p. 325.</ref> where he and his brother faced censure for their actions in North America. It is likely that the resignation of both William and his brother Richard was due to their desire to hurry home to vindicate their conduct during the campaign.<ref>Syrett, p. 74.</ref> In 1779 Howe and his brother demanded a parliamentary inquiry into their actions. The inquiry that followed was unable to confirm any charges of impropriety or mismanagement levelled against either of them.<ref name=DNB/> Because of the inconclusive nature of the inquiry, attacks continued to be made against Howe in pamphlets and the press, and in 1780 he published a response to accusations levelled by Loyalist [[Joseph Galloway]],<ref>Billias, p. 62.</ref> who issued a reply that harshly criticized the general's conduct and accused him of deliberately undermining the war effort for the benefit of the anti-war Whig faction in Parliament.<ref>Galloway, Joseph. [https://archive.org/details/cihm_20597 A reply to the observations of Lieut. Gen. Sir William Howe] (1780).</ref>