Editing William the Conqueror (section)

== Duke of Normandy ==

=== Challenges ===
[[File:Tree of William I struggle for Normandy.svg|thumb|upright=3.4|Diagram showing William's family relationships. Names with "---" under them were opponents of William, and names with "+++" were supporters of William. Some relatives switched sides over time, and are marked with both symbols.|center]]
William faced several challenges on becoming duke, including his illegitimate birth and his youth: he was either seven or eight years old.<ref name=Bates36>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 36</ref><ref name=Douglas37>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 37</ref>{{efn|How illegitimacy was viewed by the church and lay society was undergoing a change during this period. The Church, under the influence of the [[Gregorian reform]], held the view that the sin of extramarital sex tainted any offspring that resulted, but nobles had not totally embraced the Church's viewpoint during William's lifetime.<ref name=Crouch132>Crouch ''Birth of Nobility'' pp. 132–133</ref> By 1135 the illegitimate birth of [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Robert of Gloucester]], son of William's son [[Henry I of England]], was enough to bar Robert's succession as king when Henry died without legitimate male heirs, even though he had some support from the English nobility.<ref name=Bastards42>Given-Wilson and Curteis ''Royal Bastards'' p. 42</ref>}} He enjoyed the support of his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, as well as King [[Henry I of France]], enabling him to succeed to his father's duchy.<ref name=Douglas38 /> The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke's guardians were attempting to continue his father's policies,<ref name=DNB/> but Archbishop Robert's death in March 1037 removed one of William's main supporters, and Normandy quickly descended into chaos.<ref name=Douglas38>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 38–39</ref>

The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047,<ref name=Douglas51>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 51</ref> and control of the young duke was one of the priorities of those contending for power. At first, Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke, but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040, Gilbert of Brionne took charge of William. Gilbert was killed within months, and another guardian, Turchetil, was also killed around the time of Gilbert's death.<ref name=Douglas40>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 40</ref> Yet another guardian, Osbern, was slain in the early 1040s in William's chamber while the duke slept. It was said that Walter, William's maternal uncle, was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants,<ref name=Bates37>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 37</ref> although this story may be an embellishment by [[Orderic Vitalis]]. The historian Eleanor Searle speculates that William was raised with the three cousins who later became important in his career&nbsp;– [[William fitzOsbern]], [[Roger de Beaumont]], and [[Roger of Montgomery]].<ref name=Searle196>Searle ''Predatory Kinship'' pp. 196–198</ref> Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William's minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William.<ref name=Douglas42>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 42–43</ref>

[[File:Colonne Vimont.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Column at the site of the [[Battle of Val-ès-Dunes]] in 1047]]

King Henry continued to support the young duke,<ref name=Douglas45>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 45–46</ref> but in late 1046 opponents of William came together in a rebellion centred in lower Normandy, led by [[Guy of Burgundy]] with support from Nigel, Viscount of the Cotentin, and Ranulf, Viscount of the Bessin. According to stories that may have legendary elements, an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes, but he escaped under cover of darkness, seeking refuge with King Henry.<ref name=Douglas47>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 47–49</ref> In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were victorious at the [[Battle of Val-ès-Dunes]] near [[Caen]], although few details of the fighting are recorded.<ref name=Bates38>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 38</ref> William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William's efforts, but earlier accounts claim that King Henry's men and leadership also played an important part.<ref name=DNB/> William assumed power in Normandy, and shortly after the battle promulgated the [[Peace and Truce of God#Truce of God|Truce of God]] throughout his duchy, in an effort to limit warfare and violence by restricting the days of the year on which fighting was permitted.<ref name=Bates40>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 40</ref> Although the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes marked a turning point in William's control of the duchy, it was not the end of his struggle to gain the upper hand over the nobility. The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare, with lesser crises continuing until 1060.<ref name=Douglas53>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 53</ref>

=== Consolidation of power ===

William's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at [[Brionne]], which William besieged. After a long effort, the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050.<ref name=Douglas54>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 54–55</ref> To address the growing power of the Count of [[County of Anjou|Anjou]], [[Geoffrey Martel]],<ref name=Douglas56/> William joined with King Henry in a campaign against him, the last known cooperation between the two. They succeeded in capturing an Angevin fortress but accomplished little else.<ref name=Bates43>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 43–44</ref> Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of [[Maine (province)|Maine]], especially after the death of [[Hugh IV of Maine]] in 1051. Central to the control of Maine were the holdings of the [[House of Bellême|Bellême family]], who held [[Bellême]] on the border of Maine and Normandy, as well as the fortresses at [[Alençon]] and [[Domfront, Orne|Domfront]]. Bellême's overlord was the king of France, but Domfront was under the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel and Duke William was Alençon's overlord. The Bellême family, whose lands were quite strategically placed between their three different overlords, were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves.<ref name=Douglas56>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 56–58</ref>

[[File:Bayeuxtapestryodowilliamrobert.jpg|thumb|Image from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] showing William with his half-brothers. William is in the centre, Odo is on the left with empty hands, and Robert is on the right with a sword in his hand.]]

On the death of Hugh of Maine, Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine in a move contested by William and King Henry; eventually, they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county, and in the process, William secured the Bellême family strongholds at Alençon and Domfront for himself. He was thus able to assert his overlordship over the Bellême family and compel them to act consistently with Norman interests.<ref name=Douglas59>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 59–60</ref> However, in 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William as some Norman nobles began to contest William's increasing power. Henry's about-face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy, which was now threatened by William's growing mastery of his duchy.<ref name=Douglas63>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 63–64</ref> William was engaged in military actions against his own nobles throughout 1053,<ref name=Douglas66>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 66–67</ref> as well as with the new Archbishop of Rouen, [[Mauger (archbishop of Rouen)|Mauger]].<ref name=Douglas64>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 64</ref>

In February 1054 the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy. Henry led the main thrust through the [[county of Évreux]], while the other wing, under the king's half-brother Odo, invaded eastern Normandy.<ref name=Douglas67>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 67</ref> William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two. The first, which he led, faced Henry. The second, which included some who became William's firm supporters, such as [[Robert, Count of Eu]], [[Walter Giffard, Lord of Longueville|Walter Giffard]], [[Roger of Mortemer]], and [[William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey|William de Warenne]], faced the other invading force. This second force defeated the invaders at the [[Battle of Mortemer]]. In addition to ending both invasions, the battle allowed the duke's ecclesiastical supporters to depose Archbishop Mauger. Mortemer thus marked another turning point in William's growing control of the duchy,<ref name=Douglas68>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 68–69</ref> although his conflict with the French king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060.<ref name=Douglas75>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 75–76</ref> Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057 but were defeated by William at the [[Battle of Varaville]]. This was the last invasion of Normandy during William's lifetime. In 1058, William invaded the [[County of Dreux]] and took [[Tillières-sur-Avre]] and [[Thimert]]. Henry attempted to dislodge William, but the [[siege of Thimert]] dragged on for two years until Henry's death. The deaths of Count Geoffrey and the king in 1060 cemented the shift in the balance of power towards William.<ref name=Bates50>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 50</ref>

[[File:Acrdwnch.jpg|thumb|left|The signatures of William I and Matilda are the first two large crosses on the [[Accord of Winchester]] from 1072.]]

One factor in William's favour was his marriage to [[Matilda of Flanders]], the daughter of Count [[Baldwin V of Flanders]]. The union was arranged in 1049, but [[Pope Leo IX]] forbade the marriage at the [[Council of Rheims]] in October 1049.{{efn|The reasons for the prohibition are not clear. There is no record of the reason from the Council, and the main evidence is from Orderic Vitalis. He hinted obliquely that William and Matilda were [[Affinity (Catholic canon law)|too closely related]], but gave no details, hence the matter remains obscure.<ref name=Douglas391->Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 391–393</ref>}} The marriage nevertheless went ahead in the early 1050s,<ref name=Douglas76>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 76</ref>{{efn|The exact date of the marriage is unknown, but it was probably in 1051 or 1052, and certainly before the end of 1053, as Matilda is named as William's wife in a [[charter]] dated in the later part of that year.<ref name=Douglas391>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 391</ref>}} possibly unsanctioned by the pope. According to a late source not generally considered to be reliable, papal sanction was not secured until 1059, but as papal-Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good, and Norman clergy were able to visit Rome in 1050 without incident, it was probably secured earlier.<ref name=Bates44>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 44–45</ref> Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen&nbsp;– one by William and one by Matilda.<ref name=Douglas80>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 80</ref>{{efn|The two monasteries are the [[Abbaye-aux-Hommes]] (or St Étienne) for men which was founded by William in about 1059, and the [[Abbaye aux Dames]] (or Sainte Trinité) for women which was founded by Matilda around four years later.<ref name=Bates66>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 66–67</ref>}} The marriage was important in bolstering William's status, as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories, with ties to the French royal house and to the German emperors.<ref name=Bates44/> Contemporary writers considered the marriage, which produced four sons and five or six daughters, to be a success.<ref name=Douglas393/>

=== Appearance and character ===
No authentic portrait of William has been found; the contemporary depictions of him on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] and on his seals and coins are conventional representations designed to assert his authority.<ref name=Bates115>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 115–116</ref> There are some written descriptions of a burly and robust appearance, with a guttural voice. He enjoyed excellent health until old age, although he became quite fat in later life.<ref name=Douglas368>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 368–369</ref> He was strong enough to draw bows that others were unable to pull and had great stamina.<ref name=Bates115/> Geoffrey Martel described him as without equal as a fighter and horseman.<ref name=Searle203>Searle ''Predatory Kinship'' p. 203</ref> Examination of William's [[femur]], the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately {{convert|5|ft|10|in|m}} tall.<ref name=Bates115/>

There are records of two tutors for William during the late 1030s and early 1040s, but the extent of his literary education is unclear. He was not known as a patron of authors, and there is little evidence that he sponsored scholarships or intellectual activities.<ref name=DNB/> Orderic Vitalis records that William tried to learn to read [[Old English]] late in life, but he was unable to devote sufficient time to the effort and quickly gave up.<ref name=Huscroft323>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 323</ref> William's main hobby appears to have been hunting. His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate, and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her&nbsp;– unusual in a medieval monarch. Medieval writers criticised William for his greed and cruelty, but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries.<ref name=DNB/>

=== Norman administration ===

Norman government under William was similar to the government that had existed under earlier dukes. It was a fairly simple administrative system, built around the ducal household,<ref name=Bates133>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 133</ref> a group of officers including [[Steward (office)|stewards]], [[butler]]s, and [[marshal]]s.<ref name=Bates23>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 23–24</ref> The duke travelled constantly around the duchy, confirming [[charter]]s and collecting revenues.<ref name=Bates63>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 63–65</ref> Most of the income came from the ducal lands, as well as from tolls and a few taxes. This income was collected by the chamber, one of the household departments.<ref name=Bates23/>

William cultivated close relations with the church in his duchy. He took part in church councils and made several appointments to the Norman episcopate, including the appointment of [[Maurilius]] as Archbishop of Rouen.<ref name=Bates64/> Another important appointment was that of William's half-brother, Odo, as [[Bishop of Bayeux]] in 1049 or 1050.<ref name=DNB/> He also relied on the clergy for advice, including [[Lanfranc]], a non-Norman who rose to become one of William's prominent ecclesiastical advisors from the late 1040s through the 1060s. William gave generously to the church;<ref name=Bates64>Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 64–66</ref> from 1035 to 1066, the Norman aristocracy founded at least twenty new monastic houses, including William's two monasteries in Caen, a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy.<ref name=Douglas111>Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 111–112</ref>