Editing Manhattan Project (section)

=== Weapon design ===
{{Main|Project Y}}
[[File:Thin Man plutonium gun bomb casings.jpg|thumb|A row of Thin Man casings. Fat Man casings are visible in the background.|alt=Long, tube-like casings. In the background are several ovoid casings and a tow truck.]]
In 1943, development efforts were directed to a [[gun-type fission weapon]] with plutonium called [[Thin Man (nuclear bomb)|Thin Man]]. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure but could only be created in very small amounts. Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=226–229, 237}}</ref>

This rendered it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon, for the plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too soon, causing a [[predetonation]] that would disperse the critical mass after a minimal amount of plutonium had fissioned (a [[fizzle (nuclear test)|fizzle]]). A higher-velocity gun was suggested but found to be impractical. The possibility of separating the isotopes was also considered and rejected, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238, and attempting it "would postpone the weapon indefinitely".<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=242–244}}</ref>

Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist [[Seth Neddermeyer]]. Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. The critical mass is assembled in much less time than with the gun method. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases,<ref>{{harvnb|Hewlett|Anderson|1962|pp=312–313}}.</ref> so it also makes more efficient use of fissionable material.<ref>{{harvnb|Hewlett|Anderson|1962|p=246}}.</ref> Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations showed promise, but also made it clear that an implosion weapon was more complex than the gun-type design from both a theoretical and an engineering perspective.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=129–130}}</ref> In September 1943, [[John von Neumann]], who had experience with [[shaped charge]]s, proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=130–131}}</ref>

[[File:Fat Man design model.png|thumb|left|An implosion-type nuclear bomb|alt=Diagram showing fast explosive, slow explosive, uranium tamper, plutonium core and neutron initiator]]

An accelerated effort on the implosion design, codenamed [[Fat Man]], began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=245–248}}</ref> Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert [[George Kistiakowsky]] and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher.<ref>{{harvnb|Hewlett|Anderson|1962|p=311}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=245}}</ref> The new design featured [[explosive lens]]es that focused the implosion into a spherical shape.<ref name="Hoddeson et al, pp. 294-296" /> The design of lenses turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating.<ref name="Hoddeson et al, pp. 294-296">{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=294–296}}</ref> Various explosives were tested before settling on [[composition B]] and [[baratol]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=299}}</ref> The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about {{convert|80|lb}}. Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical [[detonator]]s, of which there were two for each lens for reliability.<ref name="Hansen. p. V-123" /> They used [[exploding-bridgewire detonator]]s, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by [[Luis Walter Alvarez|Luis Alvarez]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=301–307}}</ref>

To study the behavior of converging [[shock wave]]s, Robert Serber devised the [[RaLa Experiment]], which used the short-lived [[radioisotope]] [[lanthanum-140]], a potent source of [[gamma radiation]]. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an [[ionization chamber]]. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=148–154}}</ref> In his history of the Los Alamos project, [[David Hawkins (philosopher)|David Hawkins]] wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design".<ref>{{harvnb|Hawkins|Truslow|Smith|1961|p=203}}.</ref>

Within the explosives was an aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low-density explosive to the next layer, the [[Tamper (nuclear weapons)|tamper]] of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons into the core and some of its uranium would fission. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of neutron-absorbing boron.<ref name="Hansen. p. V-123" /> A polonium-beryllium [[modulated neutron initiator]], known as an "urchin",<ref>{{harvnb|Hansen|1995a|p=I-298}}.</ref> was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment.<ref>{{harvnb|Hewlett|Anderson|1962|p=235}}.</ref> This work on the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by [[Charles Allen Thomas]] of the [[Monsanto Company]] and became known as the [[Dayton Project]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilbert|1969|pp=3–4}}.</ref> Testing required up to 500 [[Curie (unit)|curies]] per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=308–310}}</ref> The whole assembly was encased in a [[duralumin]] bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak.<ref name="Hansen. p. V-123">{{harvnb|Hansen|1995b|p=V-123}}.</ref>

[[File:Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum.jpg|thumb|Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a [[RaLa Experiment]] at Los Alamos|alt=A shack surrounded by pine trees. There is snow on the ground. A man and a woman in white lab coats are pulling on a rope, which is attached to a small trolley on a wooden platform. On top of the trolley is a large cylindrical object.]]
The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was suspected, but it was soon determined that there were multiple [[allotropes of plutonium]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hewlett|Anderson|1962|pp=244–245}}.</ref> The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300&nbsp;°C to 450&nbsp;°C range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with [[alpha particles]], which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon using a [[plutonium-gallium alloy]], which stabilized the δ phase and could be [[hot pressing|hot pressed]] into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.<ref>{{harvnb|Baker|Hecker|Harbur|1983|pp=144–145}}</ref>

The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element was detected in their urine.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=288}}</ref> A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=290}}</ref> The hemispheres for the first plutonium [[pit (nuclear weapon)|pit]] (or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=330–331}}</ref>

In contrast to the plutonium Fat Man, the uranium gun-type Little Boy weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. Overall responsibility for it was assigned to Parsons's Ordnance (O) Division, with the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos consolidated under [[Lieutenant Commander (United States)|Lieutenant Commander]] [[Francis Birch (geophysicist)|Francis Birch]]'s group. The gun-type design now had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the design to be greatly simplified. A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon was substituted.{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=245–249}}{{sfn|Rhodes|1986|p=541}}

Research into the Super was also pursued, although it was considered secondary to the development of a fission bomb. The effort was directed by Teller, who was its most enthusiastic proponent.{{sfn|Hawkins|Truslow|Smith|1961|pp=95–98}} The F-1 (Super) Group calculated that burning {{convert|1|m3|sp=us}} of liquid [[deuterium]] would release the energy of {{convert|10|MtTNT}}, enough to devastate {{convert|1000|sqmi}}.{{sfn|Hawkins|Truslow|Smith|1961|pp=214–216}} In a final report on the Super in June 1946, Teller remained upbeat about the prospect of it being successfully developed, although that opinion was not universal.<ref name="PBS">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX71.html |title=American Experience . Race for the Superbomb . Super Conference |publisher=[[PBS]] |access-date=28 August 2016 |archive-date=28 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828134429/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX71.html |url-status=live }}</ref>