Editing Multiculturalism (section)

==Asia==
===India===
[[File:Farewell Ritual - Durga Idol Immersion Ceremony - Baja Kadamtala Ghat - Kolkata 2012-10-24 1458.JPG|thumb|The [[Durga Puja]] celebrated in [[Kolkata]]]]
[[File:Delhi Jama Masjid.jpg|thumb|[[Jama Masjid, Delhi]], one of the largest mosques in India]]
According to the [[1961 Census of India]], there are 1652 indigenous languages in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/aug2002/indianmothertongues1961aug2002.html |title=Language in India |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref> The [[culture of India]] has been shaped by its [[History of India|long history]], [[Geography of India|unique geography]] and [[Demographics of India|diverse demography]]. [[Languages of India|India's languages]], [[Religion in India|religions]], [[Dance in India|dance]], music, architecture and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse [[Subculture|sub-cultures]] spread all over the [[Indian subcontinent]] and traditions that are several millennia old.<ref>{{cite book |last = Mohammada
|first = Malika |title = The foundations of the composite culture in India |publisher = Aakar Books, 2007 |isbn = 9788189833183|year = 2007 }}</ref> The previously prevalent [[Indian caste system]] describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of [[endogamy|endogamous]] hereditary groups, often termed ''[[jāti]]s'' or [[caste]]s.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46404/Caste India – Caste]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.</ref>

Religiously, [[Hindus]] form the majority, followed by Muslims. The statistics are: [[Hindu]] (79.8%), [[Muslim]] (14.2%), [[Christians|Christian]] (2.3%), [[Sikh]] (1.7%), [[Buddhist]] (0.7%), [[Jain]] (0.4%), [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] (0.23%), [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], Jews, [[Zoroastrians]], and others (0.65%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Indian Census |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=10 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511035603/http://censusindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=11 May 2008 }}</ref> Linguistically, the two main language families in India are [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] (a branch of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]. In India's northeast, people speaking [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] group of languages such as [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (Meitei-lon) and [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]] recognized by the Indian constitution and [[Austroasiatic languages]] are commonly found. India (officially) follows a three-language policy. [[Hindi]] (spoken in the form of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]) is the official federal language, [[Indian English|English]] has the federal status of associate/subsidiary official language and each state has its own state official language (in the Hindi ''[[sprachraum]]'', this reduces to bilingualism). Further, India does not have any national language.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Hindi-not-a-national-language-Court/article16839525.ece|title=Hindi, not a national language: Court|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 January 2010|access-date=22 October 2017|via=thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court – Times of India|newspaper=The Times of India|date=25 January 2010 |access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> [[The Republic of India]]'s state boundaries are largely drawn based on linguistic groups; this decision led to the preservation and continuation of local ethno-linguistic sub-cultures, except for the Hindi ''sprachraum'' which is itself divided into many states. Thus, most states differ from one another in language, culture, [[Indian cuisine|cuisine]], [[Clothing in India|clothing]], [[Indian literature|literary style]], [[architecture of India|architecture]], [[music of India|music]] and festivities.

India has encountered [[Religious violence in India|religiously motivated violence]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future |year=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04156-1 |page=1}}</ref> such as the [[Moplah Riots]], the [[Bombay riots]], the [[1984 Sikh genocide]], the 1990 [[Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus]], the [[2002 Gujarat riots]], the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]], the [[2012 Assam violence]], the [[2013 Muzaffarnagar riots]], and the [[2020 Delhi riots]]. This has resulted from traditionally disadvantaged communities in public employment such as the policing of the same locality, apprehension of owners in giving properties for sale or rent<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/sachar_comm.pdf |title=Sachar Committee Report |publisher=(Cabinet Secretariat, Govt. of India) |pages=9–25 |date=Nov 2006 |access-date=18 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021182551/http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/sachar_comm.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2012 }}</ref> and of society in accepting inter-marriages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111966 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516223255/http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111966 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2016 |title=Exploring the Concept of Mixed Marriages in Indian and selected states: First time evidences from large scale survey |first1=Deepti |last1=Singh |first2=Srinivas |last2=Goli |year=2011 |work=Princeton University }}</ref>

==== Cultural minorities in India ====
The Indian constitution requires the various state-run institutions to provide quotas for minorities, which give these cultural minorities equal opportunities, as well as a forum through which they can actively participate in the institutions of the dominant culture.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Pande|first=Rohini|date=September 2003|title=Can Mandated Political Representation Increase Policy Influence for Disadvantaged Minorities? Theory and Evidence from India|journal=The American Economic Review|volume=93|issue=4|pages=1132–1151|jstor=3132282|doi=10.1257/000282803769206232}}</ref> Indian polity after the 1990s has been marked by a shift from secular principles to a landscape that is dominated by pro-Hindu propaganda; the [[Bhartiya Janata Party]] has used this rhetoric by reconstructing Hinduism and bartering it under the guise of Indian nationalism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Datta|first=Rekha|date=Summer 1999|title=Hindu Nationalism or Pregmatic Party Politics? A Study of India's Hindu Party|journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society|volume=12|issue=4|pages=573–588|jstor=20019991|doi=10.1023/A:1025938125870|s2cid=141252957}}</ref> However, the rise of pro-Hindu ideology, commonly known as [[Hindutva]], has impinged on the rights of cultural minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clarke|first=Sathianathan|date=April 2002|title=Hindutva, Religious and Ethnocultural Minorities, and Indian-Christian Theology|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|volume=95|issue=2|pages=197–226|doi=10.1017/S0017816002000123|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=4150720|s2cid=162722809}}</ref> This can be seen in the large scale violence against cultural minorities, the [[votebank]] politics used by the [[Indian National Congress]], and the promotion of issues faced by the larger religious communities over those faced by the backward groups in religious minorities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=At Home with Democracy|last=Sheth|first=D.L.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2018|isbn=978-981-10-6412-8}}</ref>

==== Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Castes (OBC) ====
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are constitutionally recognized terms in India and constitute approximately 25% of the Indian population. Moreover more than 40 percent of India's population belongs to the Other Backward Castes as per the National Sample Survey Office or the NSSO which is a government organization for conducting surveys in India. So the total size of the lower castes in India is estimated to be around 70 percent of the country's population whereas the upper caste make up around 18 percent of the population. These groups have been provided with reservations that constitutionally guarantee them representation in governmental institutions, a mandate suggested by the Mandal Commission.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Basavaraju|first=C.|date=Summer 2009|journal=Journal of the Indian Law Institute|volume=51|issue=2|pages=267–274|jstor=43953443|title=Reservation Under the Constitution of India: Issues and Perspectives}}</ref> The Indian constitution also provides SC's and ST's with protective measures that ensure equality, which is the main issue faced by members of both communities. However, while scheduled castes have turned into important political communities that the state concerns itself about, scheduled tribes continue to be politically marginalized.<ref name=":03" />

===Indonesia===
{{further|Bhinneka Tunggal Ika|Demographics of Indonesia|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Culture of Indonesia}}
[[Cultural pluralism|Pluralism]], [[Unity in diversity|diversity]] and multiculturalism is a daily fact of life in [[Indonesia]]. There are over [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|600 ethnic groups]] in Indonesia.<ref>Kuoni – Far East, A world of difference. p. 88. Published 1999 by Kuoni Travel & JPM Publications</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/news/2015/11/18/127/mengulik-data-suku-di-indonesia.html|title=Mengulik Data Suku di Indonesia|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia|Badan Pusat Statistik]]|access-date=12 February 2020|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> 95% of those are of [[Native Indonesians|Native Indonesian]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title= Pribumi |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Modern Asia |publisher= Macmillan Reference USA |url= http://www.bookrags.com/research/pribumi-ema-05/ |access-date= 5 October 2006 |archive-date= 8 July 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110708083059/http://www.bookrags.com/research/pribumi-ema-05/ |url-status= dead }}</ref> The [[Javanese people|Javanese]] are the largest ethnic group in Indonesia who make up nearly 42% of the total population.<ref name="ISAS">{{cite book |last1=Suryadinata |first1=Leo |last2=Arifin |first2=Evi Nurvidya |last3=Ananta |first3=Aris |title=Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape |date=2003 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-230-212-0 }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], and [[Madurese people|Madurese]] are the next largest groups in the country.<ref name="ISAS" /> There are also more than [[Languages of Indonesia|700 living languages spoken in Indonesia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=indonesia |title=Ethnologue report for Indonesia |publisher=Ethnologue.com |access-date=10 December 2010}}</ref> and although predominantly [[Islam in Indonesia|Muslim]] the country also has large [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christian]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] populations.

Indonesia's national motto, ''[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]'' ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one") enshrined in [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]] the national ideology, articulates the diversity that shapes the country.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Geography of Indonesia | publisher=Indonesia.go.id | url=http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/geography-indonesia | access-date=4 August 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103201331/http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/geography-indonesia | archive-date=3 January 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The government nurtures and promotes the diversity of Indonesian local culture; adopting a pluralist approach.

Due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government [[transmigration program]]s or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions. The Javanese for example, moved from their traditional homeland in Java to the other parts of the archipelago. The expansion of the Javanese and their influence throughout Indonesia has raised the issue of [[Javanization]], although [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], [[Malay Indonesian|Malay]], Madurese, [[Bugis]] and Makassar people, as a result of their ''merantau'' (migrating) culture are also quite widely distributed throughout the Indonesian archipelago, while [[Chinese Indonesian]]s can be found in most urban areas. Because of urbanization, major Indonesian cities such as [[Greater Jakarta]], [[Surabaya]], [[Bandung]], [[Palembang]], [[Medan]] and [[Makassar]] have attracted large numbers of Indonesians from various ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. Jakarta in particular has almost all Indonesian ethnic groups represented.

However, this transmigration program and close interactions between people of different cultural backgrounds caused socio-cultural problems, as the inter-ethnics interactions have not always been conducted harmoniously. After the [[Post-Suharto era|fall of Suharto]] in 1998 into the 2000s, numbers of inter-ethnic and inter-religious clashes erupted in Indonesia. Like the clashes between native [[Dayak people|Dayak]] tribes against [[Madurese people|Madurese]] transmigrants in [[Kalimantan]] during [[Sambas riots]] in 1999<ref name="hrw">{{cite web|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=28 February 2001|title=Indonesia: The Violence in Central Kalimantan (Borneo)|url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/borneo0228.htm|access-date=13 August 2008}}</ref> and the [[Sampit conflict]] in 2001.<ref name="flashpoint">{{cite news|publisher=BBC|date=28 June 2004|access-date=13 August 2008|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3811219.stm|title=Indonesia flashpoints: Kalimantan}}</ref> There were also clashes between Muslims and Christians, such as [[Poso riots|violence erupted in Poso]] between 1998 and into 2000,<ref name="BBC flashpoints">{{cite news| work =[[BBC News]] | date = 28 June 2004| title = Indonesia flashpoints: Sulawesi| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3812737.stm| access-date = 13 October 2012}}</ref> and [[Maluku sectarian conflict|violences in Maluku]] between 1999 and into 2002.<ref name="timedirty">{{cite news|last=Elegant|first=Simon|title=Indonesia's Dirty Little Holy War|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187655,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423064855/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187655,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 April 2010|access-date=31 March 2011|newspaper=Time|date=17 December 2001}}</ref> Nevertheless, Indonesia today still struggles and has managed to maintain unity and inter-cultural harmony, through a national adherence of pro-pluralism policy of Pancasila; promoted and enforced by the government and its people.

[[Chinese Indonesians]] are the largest foreign-origin minority that has resided in Indonesia for generations. Despite centuries of acculturation with native Indonesians, because of their disproportionate influence on Indonesian economy, and alleged question of national loyalty, Chinese Indonesians have suffered [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|discrimination]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=25 November 2016|title=Jakarta's violent identity crisis: behind the vilification of Chinese-Indonesians|url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/25/jakarta-chinese-indonesians-governor-ahok|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213050845/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/25/jakarta-chinese-indonesians-governor-ahok%23comments|archive-date=13 February 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The [[Suharto]] ''Orde Baru'' or New Order adopted a forced [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] policy; which indicated that Chinese cultural elements were unacceptable.{{sfn|Tan|2008|p=24}} Chinese Indonesians were forced to adopt [[Chinese Indonesian surname|Indonesian-sounding names]], and the use of Chinese culture and language was banned.<ref name=":7" /> The violence targeting Chinese Indonesians erupted during [[Fall of Suharto#Riots of 13–14 May|riots in 1998.]] As the looting and destruction took place, a number of Chinese Indonesians, as well as looters, were killed. The Chinese Indonesians were treated as the scapegoat of [[1997 Asian Financial Crisis]], a result of ongoing discrimination and segregation policies enforced during Suharto's New Order regime. Soon after the fourth Indonesian President, [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] came into power in 1999, he quickly abolished some of the discriminatory laws in efforts to promote acceptance and to improve inter-racial relationships, such as abolishing the ban on Chinese culture; allowing Chinese traditions to be practised freely. Two years later President [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] declared that the [[Chinese New Year]] (''{{lang|id|Imlek}}'') would be marked as a [[Public holidays in Indonesia|national holiday]] from 2003.{{sfn|Setiono|2003|p=1099}} Tense incidents however have included attacks on Chinese temples<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 August 2017|title=In Indonesia, Chinese Deity Is Covered in Sheet After Muslims Protest|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/world/asia/indonesia-chinese-statue-islam-muslims-protest-guan-yu.html|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and Indonesian politician [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]] being given a two year prison sentence for [[blasphemy]] due to comments he made to his supporters in September 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|date=26 November 2016|title=In Indonesia, Fears Rise Among Ethnic Chinese Amid Blasphemy Probe|language=en-US|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213045340/https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601|archive-date=13 February 2022|issn=0099-9660|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=11 August 2017|title=30m Chinese idol covered in sheet after Muslim protest|language=en-AU|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-11/chinese-statue-covered-up-in-indonesian-city/8796404}}</ref>

===Kazakhstan===
{{See also|1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan}}
There are sizeable populations of ethnic Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uighurs, Tatars, Germans and more in Kazakhstan.<ref name="historykz">{{cite web|last1=Marmontova|first1=T.V.|title=Interethnic relations in the Republic of Kazakhstan in the light of multicultural theories|date=18 June 2014 |url=http://e-history.kz/en/contents/view/2125|publisher=e-history.kz}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=September 2022}} Kazakhstan was one of a few countries in post-Soviet territories that avoided interethnic clashes and conflicts in the period of USSR's final crisis and its eventual breakup.<ref name="DND">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan –The Heaven of interfaith and interethnic harmony|date=10 December 2014 |url=http://www.dnd.com.pk/kazakhstan-heaven-interfaith-interethnic-harmony/84030|publisher=Dispatch News Desk}}</ref> In 1995, Kazakhstan created the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan]], an advisory body designed to represent the country's ethnic minorities.<ref name="Daly">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan's unique Assembly of People maintains ethnic harmony|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Analysis/Outside-View/2015/05/04/Opinion-Kazakhstans-unique-Assembly-of-People-maintains-ethnic-harmony/5051430316093/|publisher=UPI}}</ref> However, recent ethnic clashes and discrimination have been reported for groups such as Christians,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Michel|first=Casey|date=14 July 2017|title=The Reality of Religious Freedom in Kazakhstan|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/the-reality-of-religious-freedom-in-kazakhstan/|website=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=12 May 2021|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/|website=[[United States Department of State]]|language=en-US}}</ref> ultraconservative Muslims,<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 February 2018|title=Kazakhstan Targets Beards, Pants In Fight Against 'Destructive Religious Movements'|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-targets-islamist-beards-pants-destructive-movements/29017566.html|website=[[RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty]]|language=en}}</ref> ethnic [[Dungans]],<ref>{{Citation|last=[[Human Rights Watch]]|title=Kazakhstan: Events of 2020|date=3 December 2020|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/kazakhstan|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Felix Corley|date=15 April 2021|title=KAZAKHSTAN: Targeting ethnic Dungan Koran teachers|url=https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2652|website=[[Forum 18]]|language=en-gb}}</ref> [[Chechens]], [[Tajiks]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 February 2020|title=Dungan Incident Just Kazakhstan's Latest Interethnic Violence|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/dungan-incident-just-kazakhstan-s-latest-interethnic-violence/30427037.html|website=[[RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty]]|language=en}}</ref> and [[LGBT rights in Kazakhstan|LGBT people]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 August 2015|title=For Kazakhstan's LGBT Community, A Struggle For Recognition And Rights|language=en|work=[[NPR]]|url=http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/08/21/433450186/for-kazakhstans-lgbt-community-a-struggle-for-recognition-and-rights}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=23 July 2015|title=A Climate of Fear for LGBT People in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/23/thats-when-i-realized-i-was-nobody/climate-fear-lgbt-people-kazakhstan|website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

=== Malaysia ===
{{Main|Ketuanan Melayu|Bumiputera (Malaysia)|Demographics of Malaysia}}
[[Malaysia]] is a multiethnic country, with [[Malay (ethnic group)|Malays]] making up the majority, close to 58% of the population. About 25% of the population are [[Chinese Malaysian|Malaysians of Chinese descent]]. [[Indian Malaysian|Malaysians of Indian descent]] comprise about 7% of the population. The remaining 10% comprises:
* Native [[East Malaysia]]ns, namely [[Bajau]], [[Bruneian Malay people|Bruneian]], [[Bidayuh]], [[Dusun people|Dusun]], [[Iban people|Iban]], [[Kadazan]], [[Kedayan]], [[Melanau]], [[Orang Ulu]], [[Sarawakian Malay]]s, etc.
* Other native tribes of [[Peninsular Malaysia]], such as the [[Orang Asli]] and Siamese people, and
* Non-native tribes of Peninsular Malaysia such as the [[Chettiar]]s, the [[Peranakan]] and the Portuguese.

The [[Malaysian New Economic Policy]] or NEP serves as a form of "racial equalization" in the view of the Malay-controlled government.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6237328.stm Malaysia fury at EU envoy remarks], BBC News</ref> It promotes structural changes in various aspects of life from education to economic to social integration. Established after the [[13 May Incident|13 May racial riots]] of 1969, it sought to address the "significant imbalance" in the economic sphere where the minority especially the  [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]] population had substantial control over commercial activity in the country. Critics of this policy has called it synonymous to racial discrimination and synonymous to [[Apartheid (crime)#Malaysia|Apartheid]].

The [[Malay Peninsula]] has a long history of international trade contacts, influencing its ethnic and religious composition. Predominantly [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] before the 18th century, the ethnic composition changed dramatically when the British introduced new industries, and imported Chinese and Indian labor. Several regions in the then [[British Malaya]] such as [[Penang]], Malacca and Singapore became Chinese dominated. Until the riots 1969, co-existence between the three ethnicities (and other minor groups) was largely peaceful, although the three main racial groups for the most part lived in separate communities – the Malays in the villages, the Chinese in the urban areas, and the Indians in the towns and plantation. More Malays however have moved into the cities since the 1970s, and the proportion of the non-Malays have been decreasing continually, especially the Chinese, due in large part to lower birth-rate and emigration as a result of [[institutionalized discrimination]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Treena Becker|date=16 August 2016|title=Racism drove me from Malaysia. Love brought me to America|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/16/racism-stories-malaysia-love-immigration-america|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213012238/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/16/racism-stories-malaysia-love-immigration-america|archive-date=13 February 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.cpiasia.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1804:honey-i-shrunk-the-chinese-&catid=198:helen-ang&Itemid=156 |title=Honey, I shrunk the Chinese! |publisher=CPI |date=9 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525132129/http://english.cpiasia.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1804:honey-i-shrunk-the-chinese-&catid=198:helen-ang&Itemid=156 |archive-date=25 May 2012 }}</ref>

Preceding independence of the [[Federation of Malaya]], a [[social contract (Malaysia)|social contract]] was negotiated as the basis of a new society. The contract as reflected in the [[Constitution of Malaysia|1957 Malayan Constitution and the 1963 Malaysian Constitution]] states that the immigrant groups are granted citizenship, and Malays' special rights are guaranteed. This is often referred to the [[Bumiputra]] policy.

These [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist]] policies have come under pressure from racialist Malay parties, who oppose perceived subversion of Malay rights. The issue is sometimes related to the controversial [[status of religious freedom in Malaysia]].

===Singapore===
[[File:Woodlands Town Park East, Singapore, looking north towards Marsiling Rise.jpg|thumb|right|High density public housing in Singapore, which are a common sight in the country, consists of different ethnic groups living together.]]
{{Main|Immigration to Singapore}}
Due to historical immigration trends, Singapore has a Chinese majority population with significant minority populations of [[Malay people|Malays]] and [[Indian people|Indians]] (predominantly [[Tamil people|Tamils]]). Other prominent smaller groups include [[Peranakans]], [[Arabs]], [[Armenians]], [[Eurasians in Singapore|Eurasians]], [[Ethnic groups of Europe|Europeans]], [[Americans]], and Canadians. Besides English, Singapore recognizes three other languages—[[Malay language|Malay]], [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. English was established as the medium of instruction in schools during the 1960s and 1970s and is the language of trade and government while the other three languages are taught as second languages ("mother tongues"). Besides being a [[Multilingualism|multilingual]] country, Singapore also acknowledges festivals celebrated by the three main ethnic communities.

Under the [[Raffles Plan of Singapore]], the city was divided into ethnic enclaves such as [[Geylang]], [[Chinatown, Singapore|Chinatown]], and [[Little India, Singapore|Little India]]. Housing in Singapore is governed by the Ethnic Integration Policy, which ensures an even ethnic distribution throughout Singapore.<ref>(n.d.) In [[Housing and Development Board|Housing Development Boards of Singapore website]]. Retrieved: 18 November 2010 from [http://www.hdb.gov.sg/fi10/fi10296p.nsf/PressReleases/C515273FA068DD58482576DD00169155?OpenDocument ''Policy Changes To Support An Inclusive And Cohesive Home''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529111744/http://www.hdb.gov.sg/fi10/fi10296p.nsf/PressReleases/C515273FA068DD58482576DD00169155?OpenDocument |date=29 May 2010 }}.</ref> A similar policy exists in politics as all [[Group Representation Constituency|Group Representation Constituencies]] are required to field at least one candidate from an ethnic minority.<ref>Goh, Parliamentary Elections (Amendment) Bill, cols. 180–183; {{citation|author=Edwin Lee|title=Singapore: The Unexpected Nation|location=Singapore|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2008|page=499|isbn=978-981-230-796-5}}.</ref>

Today, such ethnic enclaves has mostly been eliminated, due to the contemporary Singapore's government policy to encourage further ethnic integration between the different [[Demographics of Singapore|races of Singapore]]. A prominent example is its public housing system. Unlike other countries, public housing is not ostracised by a wide majority of the population and its government, and acts as a necessary and vital measure to provide immaculate and safe housing surrounded by [[Amenity|public amenities]] at affordable prices, especially during its rapid development and industrialisation in the early years of independence.<ref name="LKS">{{cite book |title=Lim Kim San: a builder of Singapore |date=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9812309280}}</ref> It is also meant to foster [[Group cohesiveness|social cohesion]] between the social classes and races of Singapore, and prevent neglected areas or districts and [[ethnic enclaves]] from developing – known as the Ethnic Integration Policy (EIP).<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Integration Policy and SPR Quota – Housing & Development Board (HDB)|url=http://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/residential/buying-a-flat/resale/ethnic-integration-policy-and-spr-quota|website=Housing and Development Board (HDB)|access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> As such, it is considered a unique part of Singaporean culture, being commonly associated with the country.<ref name="SGCUL">{{cite web |url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/singapore/articles/11-things-you-should-know-about-singaporean-culture/ |title=11 Things You Should Know About Singaporean Culture |last=Kaur |first=Tarra |website=theculturetrip.com |date=23 March 2018 |publisher=Culture Trip |access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref>

===South Korea===
{{Main|Immigration to South Korea}}
[[South Korea]] remains a relatively homogenous country ethnically, linguistically, and culturally.<ref>"[http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/koreas_ethnic_nationalism_is_a_source_of_both_pride_and_prejudice_according_to_giwook_shin_20060802/ Korea's ethnic nationalism is a source of both pride and prejudice, according to Gi-Wook Shin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720053258/http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/koreas_ethnic_nationalism_is_a_source_of_both_pride_and_prejudice_according_to_giwook_shin_20060802 |date=20 July 2011 }}". The Korea Herald. 2 August 2006.</ref> Foreigners, expatriates, and immigrants are often rejected by the mainstream South Korean society and face discrimination.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/19991013000846/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/CMTS/MonoPaper3-13.html The Life Instability of Intermarried Japanese Women in Korea]" (1999), Eung-Ryul Kim (Korea University and University of Southern California, The Center for Multiethnic and Transnational Studies)</ref> This can be seen as a result of World War II where the first noteworthy wave of multiculturalism between American servicemen and Korean women occurred. South Korea has been long regarded as an ethnic homogeneous country, therefore, the rise in mixed-race children was seen as a new phenomenon. Before the 1990s, the term ''honhyeol'' was commonly used to identify multiracial individuals in Korea – primarily in relation to the children of Korean women and American servicemen;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Erin Aeran |title=Immigration Incorporation in East Asian Democracies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020}}</ref> this common term strengthened the association of multiracial people with a sense of alienation, rather than promoting cultural diversity within Korea. Not only did this term effectively discriminate against mixed-race Koreans but it also made a clear distinction between native Koreans and mixed-race Koreans.

Han Geon-Soo 2007 notes the increased use of the word "multiculturalism" in South Korea: "As the increase of foreign migrants in [South] Korea transforms a single-ethnic homogeneous [South] Korean society into multiethnic and multicultural one, [the South] Korean government and the civil society pay close attention to multiculturalism as an alternative value to their policy and social movement." He argued, however, that "the current discourses and concerns on multiculturalism in [South] Korea" lacked "the constructive and analytical concepts for transforming a society".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Geon-Soo |title=Multicultural Korea: Celebration or Challenge of Multiethnic Shift in Contemporary Korea? |journal=Korea Journal |date=December 2007 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=32–31 |doi=10.25024/KJ.2007.47.4.32 |s2cid=151038291 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The same year, Stephen Castles of the International Migration Institute argued:
:"Korea no longer has to decide whether it wants to become a multicultural society. It made that decision years ago – perhaps unconsciously – when it decided to be a full participant in the emerging global economy. It confirmed that decision when it decided to actively recruit foreign migrants to meet the economic and demographic needs of a fast-growing society. Korea is faced by a different decision today: what type of multicultural society does it want to be?"<ref>Stephen Castles, [http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SC%20paper%20on%20MC%20soc%20for%20GHFR%20Korea%202007.pdf "Will Labour Migration lead to a Multicultural Society in Korea?", Global Human Resources Forum 2007 / International Migration Institute] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725111757/http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SC%20paper%20on%20MC%20soc%20for%20GHFR%20Korea%202007.pdf |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref>

The ''[[Korea Times]]'' suggested in 2009 that South Korea was likely to become a multicultural society.<ref>[https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2010/10/123_57884.html "Multiculturalism Likely to Prevail in Korea"], Lee Hyo-sik, ''Korea Times'', 24 December 2009</ref> In 2010, an opinion editorial written by Peter Underwood for the ''[[JoongAng Ilbo]]'' stated: "Media in [South] Korea is abuzz with the new era of multiculturalism. With more than one million foreigners in [South] Korea, 2 percent of the population comes from other cultures." He further opined:
:"If you stay too long, Koreans become uncomfortable with you. [...] Having a two percent foreign population unquestionably causes ripples, but having one million temporary foreign residents does not make Korea a multicultural society. [...] In many ways, this homogeneity is one of Korea's greatest strengths. Shared values create harmony. Sacrifice for the nation is a given. Difficult and painful political and economic initiatives are endured without discussion or debate. It is easy to anticipate the needs and behavior of others. It is the cornerstone that has helped Korea survive adversity. But there is a downside, too. [...] Koreans are immersed in their culture and are thus blind to its characteristics and quirks. Examples of group think are everywhere. Because Koreans share values and views, they support decisions even when they are obviously bad. Multiculturalism will introduce contrasting views and challenge existing assumptions. While it will undermine the homogeneity, it will enrich Koreans with a better understanding of themselves."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Underwood |first=Peter |date=26 August 2010 |url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925120 |title=Multiculturalism in Korea |work=JoongAng Ilbo |location=South Korea |access-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902022520/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925120 |archive-date=2 September 2010 }}</ref>

In 2010, results from the Korean Identity Survey suggested that government programs promoting multiculturalism had seen some success with over 60% of Koreans supporting the idea a multicultural society.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Palmer |first1=James |last2=Park |first2=Ga-Yong |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/south-koreans-learn-to-love-the-other-multiculturalism/ |title=South Koreans Learn to Love the Other: How to manufacture multiculturalism |access-date=3 December 2019 |newspaper=Foreign Policy |date=26 July 2018}}</ref> However, the same poll in 2015 showed that support of a multicultural society had dropped to 49.7% suggesting a possible return to ethnic exclusivism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Denney |first=Steven |url=https://sinonk.com/2016/10/28/south-korean-identity-the-return-of-ethnic-exclusivism/ |title=South Korean Identity: The Return of Ethnic Exclusivism |access-date=4 December 2019 |journal=Sino-NK |date=28 October 2016}}</ref>

=== Turkey ===
{{Main|Immigration to Turkey}}
[[Turkey]] is a country [[Geography of Turkey|that straddles both Europe and Asia]]. It is home to several ethnic groups including [[Turkish people|Turkish]], [[Arabs in Turkey|Arab]], [[Armenians in Turkey|Armenian]], [[Assyrians in Turkey|Assyrian]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Kurds in Turkey|Kurdish]], and [[History of the Jews in Turkey|Jewish]]. There are cultural influences dating back to [[Ancient Greece|ancient Hellenic]], [[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Semitic]] and [[History of Iran|Iranian civilizations]] which diffused and mingled in myriad ways over a period of centuries.<ref name="auto2">{{cite journal |last1=Rauf |first1=Imam Feisal Abdul |title=MULTICULTURALISMS: Western, Muslim and Future |journal=CrossCurrents |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=100–105 |jstor=24461190 }}</ref>

In recent years there has been an increase of diversity acceptance in Turkey, mainly because there was fear of losing values of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman past]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaya |first=Ayhan |chapter=Multiculturalism and Minorities in Turkey |date=2013 |title=Challenging Multiculturalism |pages=297–316 |series=European Models of Diversity |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-6457-3 |jstor=10.3366/j.ctt20q22fw.20 }}</ref>