Editing Religion in ancient Rome (section)

==== Jews and Roman religion ====
{{See also|Fiscus Judaicus|Religio licita|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire}}
[[File:2nd century Rome gold goblet shows Jewish ritual objects.jpg|thumb|left|Jewish ritual objects in 2nd-century [[gold glass]] from Rome]]

For at least a century before the establishment of the Augustan principate, Jews and Judaism were tolerated in Rome by diplomatic treaty with Judaea's Hellenised elite. [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora Jews]] had much in common with the overwhelmingly Hellenic or Hellenised communities that surrounded them. Early Italian synagogues have left few traces; but one was dedicated in Ostia around the mid-1st century BC and several more are attested during the Imperial period. Judaea's enrollment as a client kingdom in 63 BC increased the Jewish diaspora; in Rome, this led to closer official scrutiny of their religion. Their synagogues were recognised as legitimate ''collegia'' by Julius Caesar. By the Augustan era, the city of Rome was home to several thousand Jews.<ref>Beard et al., Vol. 1, 266–7, 270.</ref><ref>Smallwood, 2-3, 4-6: the presence of practicing Jews in Rome is attested "at least a century" before 63 BC. Smallwood describes the preamble to Judaea's clientage as the Hellenising of ruling Jewish dynasties, their claims to kingly messianism and their popular, traditionalist rejection in the Maccabaean revolt. In Rome, the more "characteristically Jewish" beliefs and customs were subjects of scorn and mockery.[https://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&dq=Jews+smallwood+actium+Parthia&pg=PA2 Books.Google.co.uk] ''Ibid'', 120-143 for early Roman responses to Judaistic practice; but see also Tessa Rajack, "Was there a Roman Charter for the Jews?" ''Journal of Roman Studies,'' 74, (1984) 107-23; no "Roman charter" for Judaism should be inferred from local, ''ad hoc'' attempts to suppress anti-Jewish acts (as in Josephus' account); Judaism as ''religio licita'' is only found later, in Tertullian. Cicero, ''pro Flacco, 66'', refers to Judaism as ''superstitio''.</ref> In some periods under Roman rule, Jews were legally exempt from official sacrifice, under certain conditions. Judaism was a ''superstitio'' to Cicero, but the [[Church Father]] [[Tertullian]] described it as ''[[religio licita]]'' (an officially permitted religion) in contrast to Christianity.<ref>Smallwood, 2-3, 4-6:  ''superstitio'' in Cicero, ''pro Flacco'', 66, but legislation by Julius Caesar recognised the synagogues in Rome as legitimate ''collegia'' and Augustus maintained their status. Josephus infers an early "charter" offering protection to Jews, but Tessa Rajack, "Was there a Roman Charter for the Jews?" Journal of Roman Studies, 74, (1984) 107-23, finds evidence only for Rome's official suppression of anti-Jewish activities. ''Religio licita'' is first found much later than this, in Tertullian.</ref>