Editing Internet access (section)

==Digital divide==
[[File:InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg|thumb|400px|<div style="text-align: center;">'''[[List of countries by number of Internet users|Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's population]]'''</div><small>Source: [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name=ITU-IndividualsUsingTheInternet>[http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2013/Individuals_Internet_2000-2012.xls "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000–2012"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209141641/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2013/Individuals_Internet_2000-2012.xls |date=2014-02-09 }}, International Telecommunication Union (Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013</ref></small>]]

[[File:FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg|thumb |400px |<div style="text-align: center;">'''[[List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions|Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012]]<br />as a percentage of a country's population'''</div>Source: [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name="FixedBroadbandITUDynamic2012">[http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710054412/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx |date=2017-07-10 }}, Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, [[International Telecommunication Union]]. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.</ref>]]

[[File:MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap 2013.svg|thumb |400px |<div style="text-align: center;">'''[[List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions|Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012]]<br />as a percentage of a country's population'''</div>Source: [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name="MobleBroadbandITUDynamic2012">[http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710054412/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx |date=2017-07-10 }}, Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, [[International Telecommunication Union]]. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.</ref>]]

[[File:BandwidthInequality1986-2014.jpg|thumb|400px |The digital divide measured in terms of bandwidth is not closing, but fluctuating up and down. Gini coefficients for telecommunication capacity (in&nbsp;kbit/s) among individuals worldwide<ref name="HilbertBitsDivide"/>]]

Despite its tremendous growth, Internet access is not distributed equally within or between countries.<ref name=ITU-ICTStats>[http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/at_glance/KeyTelecom.html "Internet Users"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303061300/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/at_glance/KeyTelecom.html |date=2013-03-03 }}, Key ICT indicators for the ITU/BDT regions, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva, 16 November 2011</ref><ref name=HRJ-24-1>Amir Hatem Ali, A. (2011). [http://harvardhrj.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/185-220.pdf "The power of social media in developing nations"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114083745/http://harvardhrj.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/185-220.pdf |date=2012-11-14 }}, ''Human Rights Journal'', Harvard Law School, Vol. 24, Issue 1 (2011), pp. 185–219</ref> The [[digital divide]] refers to "the gap between people with effective access to [[information and communications technology]] (ICT), and those with very limited or no access". The gap between people with Internet access and those without is one of many aspects of the digital divide.<ref name=Wattal-Jan2011>Wattal, S.; Yili Hong; Mandviwalla, M.; Jain, A., [https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5718600/;jsessionid=D7CE59BA88AADA686624D38208B22EF4?arnumber=5718600 "Technology Diffusion in the Society: Analyzing Digital Divide in the Context of Social Class] ", ''Proceedings of the 44th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)'', pp.1–10, 4–7 January 2011, {{ISBN|978-0-7695-4282-9}}</ref> Whether someone has access to the Internet can depend greatly on financial status, geographical location as well as government policies. "Low-income, rural, and minority populations have received special scrutiny as the technological 'have-nots'."<ref name=McCollum-Spring2011>McCollum, S., [http://www.tolerance.org/magazine/number-39-spring-2011/getting-past-digital-divide "Getting Past the 'Digital Divide'"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104020811/http://www.tolerance.org/magazine/number-39-spring-2011/getting-past-digital-divide |date=2011-11-04 }}, ''Teaching Tolerance'', No. 39 (Spring 2011), pp. 46–49, and ''Education Digest'', Vol. 77 No. 2 (October 2011), pp. 52–55</ref>

Government policies play a tremendous role in bringing Internet access to or limiting access for underserved groups, regions, and countries. For example, in Pakistan, which is pursuing an aggressive IT policy aimed at boosting its drive for economic modernization, the number of Internet users grew from 133,900 (0.1% of the population) in 2000 to 31 million (17.6% of the population) in 2011.<ref>[http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/TelecomICT_Indicators_Definition_March2010_for_web.pdf Definitions of World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators, March 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220064242/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/TelecomICT_Indicators_Definition_March2010_for_web.pdf |date=2014-12-20 }}, [[International Telecommunication Union]], March 2010. Accessed on 21 October 2011.</ref> In [[Internet in North Korea|North Korea]] there is relatively little access to the Internet due to the governments' fear of political instability that might accompany the benefits of access to the global Internet.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CEEDF173FF930A15753C1A9609C8B63&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FPeople%2FK%2FKim%20Jong%20Il | work=The New York Times | title=LINK BY LINK; The Internet Black Hole That Is North Korea | first=Tom Jr. | last=Zeller | date=October 23, 2006 | access-date=May 5, 2010 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612014953/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CEEDF173FF930A15753C1A9609C8B63&n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FPeople%2FK%2FKim%20Jong%20Il | archive-date=June 12, 2010 }}</ref> The [[United States trade embargo against Cuba|U.S. trade embargo]] is a barrier limiting Internet access in [[Internet in Cuba|Cuba]].<ref name=Press-2011>[http://som.csudh.edu/fac/lpress/cuba/chapters/lpdraft2.docx ''The state of the Internet in Cuba, January 2011''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425143747/http://som.csudh.edu/fac/lpress/cuba/chapters/lpdraft2.docx |date=2012-04-25 }}, Larry Press, Professor of Information Systems at [[California State University]], January 2011</ref>

Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in developing countries, 25% of households had a computer and 20% had Internet access, while in developed countries the figures were 74% of households had a computer and 71% had Internet access.<ref name=ITU-ITCFacts/> The majority of people in developing countries do not have Internet access.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-02-25|title=Most people in developing countries have no Internet access: Facebook|url=https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/most-people-in-developing-countries-have-no-internet-access-facebook-3663131.html|access-date=2021-11-10|website=Tech2|archive-date=2021-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110021452/https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/most-people-in-developing-countries-have-no-internet-access-facebook-3663131.html|url-status=live}}</ref> About 4 billion people do not have Internet access.<ref>{{Cite web|title=4 Billion People Still Not Online|url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/4-billion-people-still-not-online|access-date=2021-11-10|website=PCMAG|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110021451/https://www.pcmag.com/news/4-billion-people-still-not-online|url-status=live}}</ref> When buying computers was legalized in Cuba in 2007, the private ownership of computers soared (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in 2008, a 23% increase over 2007).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qQZfkOCNsC&q=Private+ownership+computers&pg=PA114 "Changes in Cuba: From Fidel to Raul Castro"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109135109/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qQZfkOCNsC&pg=PA114&lpg=PA114&dq=Private+ownership+of+computers+in+Cuba&source=bl&ots=bKMn5ZraA6&sig=8CcYmtODxcyXSr9LxtjatH_vkdE&hl=en&ei=ydWPTuKbLcaWtweR_qCNDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw |date=2017-01-09 }}, ''Perceptions of Cuba: Canadian and American policies in comparative perspective'', Lana Wylie, University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 2010, p. 114, {{ISBN|978-1-4426-4061-0}}</ref><ref name="Cuba to keep internet limits">{{cite web |url=http://www.allbusiness.com/media-telecommunications/internet-www/11795551-1.html |title=Cuba to keep internet limits |publisher=Agence France-Presse (AFP) |date=9 February 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512025828/http://www.allbusiness.com/media-telecommunications/internet-www/11795551-1.html |archive-date=12 May 2009 }}</ref>

Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral part of people's economic, political, and social lives. The United Nations has recognized that providing Internet access to more people in the world will allow them to take advantage of the "political, social, economic, educational, and career opportunities" available over the Internet.<ref name=HRJ-24-1/> Several of the 67 principles adopted at the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] convened by the [[United Nations]] in Geneva in 2003, directly address the digital divide.<ref name=WSIS-03>[http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/dop.html "Declaration of Principles"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015064756/http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/dop.html |date=2013-10-15 }}, WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/4-E, World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva, 12 December 2003</ref> To promote economic development and a reduction of the [[digital divide]], [[national broadband plans from around the world|national broadband plans]] have been and are being developed to increase the availability of affordable high-speed Internet access throughout the world. The Global Gateway, the EU's initiative to assist infrastructure development throughout the world, plans to raise €300 billion for connectivity projects, including those in the digital sector, between 2021 and 2027.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global Gateway: a real step towards a stronger Europe in the world? |url=https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/global-gateway-real-step-towards-stronger-europe-world |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=Bruegel {{!}} The Brussels-based economic think tank |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811031408/https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/global-gateway-real-step-towards-stronger-europe-world |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Press corner |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=European Commission - European Commission |language=en |archive-date=2020-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825095835/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/home/en |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Growth in number of users===
{{Worldwide Internet users}}
{{Internet users by region}}
{{Main|Global Internet usage}}

Access to the Internet grew from an estimated 10 million people in 1993, to almost 40 million in 1995, to 670 million in 2002, and to 2.7 billion in 2013.<ref>[http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2013-e.pdf "ITC Facts and Figures 2013"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230143936/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2013-e.pdf |date=2014-12-30 }}, Brahima Sanou, Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva, February 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2015.</ref> With [[market saturation]], growth in the number of Internet users is slowing in industrialized countries, but continues in Asia,<ref>[http://www.synovate.com/changeagent/index.php/site/full_story/the_lives_of_asian_youth/ "The lives of Asian youth"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511152234/http://www.synovate.com/changeagent/index.php/site/full_story/the_lives_of_asian_youth |date=2009-05-11 }}, Change Agent, August 2005</ref> Africa, Latin America, the [[Caribbean]], and the Middle East. Across Africa, an estimated 900 million people are still not connected to the internet; for those who are, connectivity fees remain generally expensive, and bandwidth is severely constrained in many locations.<ref name="Denis-2022">{{Cite web |title=Digital infrastructure help Africa build resilient societies |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/african-digital-infrastructure |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905024355/https://www.eib.org/en/essays/african-digital-infrastructure |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mitchell-2021">{{Cite news |date=2021-11-10 |title=African e-Connectivity Index 2021: the final frontier and a huge opportunity |url=https://www.investmentmonitor.ai/tech/africa-connectivity-index-2021 |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=Investment Monitor |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619074000/https://www.investmentmonitor.ai/tech/africa-connectivity-index-2021 |url-status=live |last1=Mitchell |first1=Jason }}</ref> The number of mobile customers in Africa, however, is expanding faster than everywhere else. Mobile financial services also allow for immediate payment of products and services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solutions |url=https://www.wearetech.africa/en/fils-uk/solutions |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=www.wearetech.africa |language=fr-fr |archive-date=2023-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117054517/https://www.wearetech.africa/en/fils-uk/solutions |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How Africa's growing mobile money market is evolving |url=https://www.ey.com/en_ao/banking-capital-markets/how-africa-s-growing-mobile-money-market-is-evolving |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-AO |archive-date=2023-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117054415/https://www.ey.com/en_ao/banking-capital-markets/how-africa-s-growing-mobile-money-market-is-evolving |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bayuo |first1=Blaise |last2=Bamford |first2=Roxanne |last3=Baah |first3=Belinda |last4=Mwaya |first4=Judith |last5=Gakuo |first5=Chizi |last6=Tholstrup |first6=Sophie |date=February 2022 |title=Supercharging Africa's Startups: The Continent's Path to Tech Excellence |url=https://institute.global/policy/supercharging-africas-startups-continents-path-tech-excellence |language=en |access-date=2022-09-06 |archive-date=2022-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903112424/https://institute.global/policy/supercharging-africas-startups-continents-path-tech-excellence |url-status=live }}</ref>

There were roughly 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and almost 1.2 billion mobile broadband subscribers in 2011.<ref>[http://gigaom.com/2010/07/09/worldwide-broadband-subscribers/ Giga.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704064425/https://gigaom.com/2010/07/09/worldwide-broadband-subscribers/ |date=2017-07-04 }} Nearly Half a Billion Broadband Subscribers</ref> In developed countries people frequently use both fixed and mobile broadband networks. In developing countries mobile broadband is often the only access method available.<ref name=ITU-ITCFacts/>

===Bandwidth divide===

Traditionally the divide has been measured in terms of the existing numbers of subscriptions and digital devices ("have and have-not of subscriptions"). Recent studies have measured the digital divide not in terms of technological devices, but in terms of the existing bandwidth per individual (in&nbsp;kbit/s per capita).<ref name="HilbertBitsDivide">{{cite journal | url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/2jp4w5rq | doi=10.1016/j.telpol.2016.01.006 | volume=40 | issue=6 | title=The bad news is that the digital access divide is here to stay: Domestically installed bandwidths among 172 countries for 1986–2014 | year=2016 | journal=Telecommunications Policy | pages=567–581 | last1=Hilbert | first1=Martin | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604191331/http://escholarship.org/uc/item/2jp4w5rq | archive-date=2016-06-04 }}</ref><ref name="HilbertInfoInequality">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/asi.23020 | volume=65 | issue=4 | title=Technological information inequality as an incessantly moving target: The redistribution of information and communication capacities between 1986 and 2010 | year=2013 | journal=Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology | pages=821–835 | last1=Hilbert | first1=Martin | s2cid=15820273 | url=http://martinhilbert.net/TechInfoInequality.pdf | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027053254/http://www.martinhilbert.net/TechInfoInequality.pdf | archive-date=2016-10-27 }}</ref> As shown in the Figure on the side, the digital divide in&nbsp;kbit/s is not monotonically decreasing, but re-opens up with each new innovation. For example, "the massive diffusion of narrow-band Internet and mobile phones during the late 1990s" increased digital inequality, as well as "the initial introduction of broadband DSL and cable modems during 2003–2004 increased levels of inequality".<ref name="HilbertInfoInequality"/> This is because a new kind of connectivity is never introduced instantaneously and uniformly to society as a whole at once, but diffuses slowly through social networks. As shown by the Figure, during the mid-2000s, communication capacity was more unequally distributed than during the late 1980s, when only fixed-line phones existed. The most recent increase in digital equality stems from the massive diffusion of the latest digital innovations (i.e. fixed and mobile broadband infrastructures, e.g. [[3G]] and fiber optics [[FTTH]]).<ref>SciDevNet (2014) How mobile phones increased the digital divide; {{cite web |url=http://www.scidev.net/global/data/scidev-net-at-large/how-mobile-phones-increased-the-digital-divide.html |title=How mobile phones increased the digital divide |access-date=2014-03-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307214246/http://www.scidev.net/global/data/scidev-net-at-large/how-mobile-phones-increased-the-digital-divide.html |archive-date=2014-03-07 }}</ref> As shown in the Figure, Internet access in terms of bandwidth is more unequally distributed in 2014 as it was in the mid-1990s.

For example, only 0.4% of the African population has a fixed-broadband subscription. The majority of internet users use it through mobile broadband.<ref name="Denis-2022"/><ref name="Mitchell-2021"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Africa Connectivity Outlook: 2022 and Beyond |url=https://www.ses.com/blog/africa-connectivity-outlook-2022-and-beyond |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=SES |date=27 June 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812063556/https://www.ses.com/blog/africa-connectivity-outlook-2022-and-beyond |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Why aren't more people using mobile internet in West Africa? |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/digital-development/why-arent-more-people-using-mobile-internet-west-africa |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=blogs.worldbank.org |date=8 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=2022-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723090826/https://blogs.worldbank.org/digital-development/why-arent-more-people-using-mobile-internet-west-africa |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Rural access===
{{main|Broadband universal service}}

One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is to provide service to potential customers in areas of low [[population density]], such as to farmers, ranchers, and small towns. In cities where the population density is high, it is easier for a service provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural customer may require expensive equipment to get connected. While 66% of Americans had an Internet connection in 2010, that figure was only 50% in rural areas, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2010/Home-Broadband-2010/Part-1/Broadband-adoption-among-African-Americans-grew-significantly-between-2009-and-2010.aspx |title=Trends in broadband adoption |work=Home Broadband 2010 |first=Aaron |last=Scott |publisher=Pew Internet & American Life Project |date=August 11, 2011 |access-date=December 23, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219195728/http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2010/Home-Broadband-2010/Part-1/Broadband-adoption-among-African-Americans-grew-significantly-between-2009-and-2010.aspx |archive-date=December 19, 2011 }}</ref>
[[Virgin Media]] advertised over 100 towns across the United Kingdom "from [[Cwmbran]] to [[Clydebank]]" that have access to their 100&nbsp;Mbit/s service.<ref name="100mb">{{cite web |url= http://mediacentre.virginmedia.com/Stories/Virgin-Media-s-ultrafast-100Mb-broadband-now-available-to-over-four-million-UK-homes-211c.aspx |title= Virgin Media's ultrafast 100Mb broadband now available to over four million UK homes |work= News release |publisher= Virgin Media |date= June 10, 2011 |access-date= August 18, 2011 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120710052836/http://mediacentre.virginmedia.com/Stories/Virgin-Media-s-ultrafast-100Mb-broadband-now-available-to-over-four-million-UK-homes-211c.aspx |archive-date= July 10, 2012 }}</ref>

[[Wireless Internet service provider]]s (WISPs) are rapidly becoming a popular broadband option for rural areas.<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news71497509.html Wireless World: Wi-Fi now in rural areas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916103841/http://www.physorg.com/news71497509.html |date=2011-09-16 }} July 7, 2006</ref> The technology's line-of-sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some areas with hilly and heavily foliated terrain. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote Scotland, demonstrates that wireless can be a viable option.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tegola.org.uk | title=Tegola project linking Skye, Knoydart and Loch Hourne | access-date=2010-03-16 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015180711/http://www.tegola.org.uk/ | archive-date=2012-10-15 }}</ref>

The Canadian [[Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiative]] [[public private partnership]] is the first program in North America to guarantee access to "100% of civic addresses" in a region. It is based on [[Motorola Canopy]] technology. As of November 2011, under 1000 households have reported access problems. Deployment of a new cell network by one Canopy provider ([[EastLink (company)|Eastlink]]) was expected to provide the alternative of 3G/4G service, possibly at a special unmetered rate, for areas harder to serve by Canopy.<ref>[http://www.gov.ns.ca/econ/broadband/ "Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519220248/http://www.gov.ns.ca/econ/broadband/ |date=2012-05-19 }}, Economic and Rural Development, Nova Scotia, Canada, access 27 April 2012</ref>

In New Zealand, a fund has been formed by the government to improve rural broadband,<ref>{{cite web|title=Rural Broadband Initiative 2|url=http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/fast-broadband/new-initiatives/rbi2-mbsf-policy-settings|access-date=30 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424200803/http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/fast-broadband/new-initiatives/rbi2-mbsf-policy-settings/|archive-date=24 April 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and mobile phone coverage. Current proposals include: (a) extending fiber coverage and upgrading copper to support VDSL, (b) focusing on improving the coverage of cellphone technology, or (c) regional wireless.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rural broadband extension bids: Your guide to the RBI2 runners and riders|url=https://www.geekzone.co.nz/content.asp?contentid=21425|access-date=30 April 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417110115/https://www.geekzone.co.nz/content.asp?contentid=21425|archive-date=17 April 2017}}</ref>

Several countries have started [[Hybrid Access Networks]] to provide faster Internet services in rural areas by enabling network operators to efficiently combine their XDSL and LTE networks.

===Access as a civil or human right===
{{Further |Digital rights|Right to Internet access}}

The actions, statements, opinions, and recommendations outlined below have led to the suggestion that Internet access itself is or should become a civil or perhaps a human right.<ref>[http://www.du.edu/gsis/hrhw/volumes/2004/best-2004.pdf "Can the Internet be a Human Right?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912182134/http://www.du.edu/gsis/hrhw/volumes/2004/best-2004.pdf |date=2008-09-12 }}, Michael L. Best, ''Human rights & Human Welfare'', Vol. 4 (2004)</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/06/internet-a-human-right/ | magazine=Wired | first=David | last=Kravets | title=U.N. Report Declares Internet Access a Human Right | date=June 3, 2011 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324174702/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/06/internet-a-human-right | archive-date=March 24, 2014 }}</ref>

Several countries have adopted laws requiring the state to work to ensure that Internet access is broadly available or preventing the state from unreasonably restricting an individual's [[access to information]] and the Internet:
* [[Costa Rica]]: A 30 July 2010 ruling by the Supreme Court of Costa Rica stated: "Without fear of equivocation, it can be said that these technologies [information technology and communication] have impacted the way humans communicate, facilitating the connection between people and institutions worldwide and eliminating barriers of space and time. At this time, access to these technologies becomes a basic tool to facilitate the exercise of fundamental rights and democratic participation (e-democracy) and citizen control, education, freedom of thought and expression, access to information and public services online, the right to communicate with the government electronically and administrative transparency, among others. This includes the fundamental right of access to these technologies, in particular, the right of access to the Internet or World Wide Web."<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20151217120514/http://200.91.68.20/pj/scij/busqueda/jurisprudencia/jur_texto_sentencia.asp?nValor2=483874&tem1=013141&param7=0&lResultado=3&nValor1=1&strTipM=T&strLib=LIB "Judgement 12790 of the Supreme Court"]}}, File 09-013141-0007-CO, 30 July 2010. ([https://www.google.com/translate_c?langpair=en&u=http://200.91.68.20/pj/scij/busqueda/jurisprudencia/jur_texto_sentencia.asp?nValor2=483874&tem1=013141&param7=0&lResultado=3&nValor1=1&strTipM=T&strLib=LIB English translation])</ref>
* [[Estonia]]: In 2000, the parliament launched a massive program to expand access to the countryside. The Internet, the government argues, is essential for life in the twenty-first century.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0701/p07s01-woeu.html "Estonia, where being wired is a human right"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222045554/http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0701/p07s01-woeu.html |date=2012-02-22 }}, Colin Woodard, ''Christian Science Monitor'', 1 July 2003</ref>
* [[Finland]]: By July 2010, every person in Finland was to have access to a one-megabit per second broadband connection, according to the [[Ministry of Transport and Communications (Finland)|Ministry of Transport and Communications]]. And by 2015, access to a 100&nbsp;Mbit/s connection.<ref>[http://news.cnet.com/8301-17939_109-10374831-2.html "Finland makes 1Mb broadband access a legal right"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729123950/http://news.cnet.com/8301-17939_109-10374831-2.html |date=2012-07-29 }}, Don Reisinger, ''CNet News'', 14 October 2009</ref>
* [[France]]: In June 2009, the [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]], France's highest court, declared access to the Internet to be a basic human right in a strongly-worded decision that struck down portions of the [[HADOPI law]], a law that would have tracked abusers and without judicial review automatically cut off network access to those who continued to download illicit material after two warnings<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,525993,00.html | work=London Times | publisher=Fox News | title=Top French Court Declares Internet Access 'Basic Human Right' | date=12 June 2009 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107044340/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,525993,00.html | archive-date=2012-01-07 | access-date=2019-01-14 }}</ref>
* [[Greece]]: Article 5A of the [[Constitution of Greece]] states that all persons has a right to participate in the [[Information society|Information Society]] and that the state has an obligation to facilitate the production, exchange, diffusion, and access to electronically transmitted information.<ref name="gr">[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf ''Constitution of Greece As revised by the parliamentary resolution of May twenty-seventh 2008 of the VIIIth Revisionary Parliament''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705085050/http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf |date=2015-07-05 }}, English language translation, Hellenic Parliament</ref>
* [[Spain]]: Starting in 2011, {{lang|es|[[Telefónica]]|italic=no}}, the former state monopoly that holds the country's "[[universal service]]" contract, has to guarantee to offer "reasonably" priced broadband of at least one megabyte per second throughout Spain.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLH61554320091117 |title = Spain govt to guarantee legal right to broadband |author = Sarah Morris |work = Reuters |date = 17 November 2009 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101225064217/http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLH61554320091117 |archive-date = 25 December 2010 }}</ref>

In December 2003, the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] (WSIS) was convened under the auspice of the [[United Nations]]. After lengthy negotiations between governments, businesses and civil society representatives the WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted reaffirming the importance of the Information Society to maintaining and strengthening [[human rights]]:<ref name="WSIS-03"/>
<ref name="Murray">{{Cite book| last1 = Klang| first1 = Mathias| last2 = Murray| first2 = Andrew| title = Human Rights in the Digital Age| year = 2005| url = http://www.psypress.com/9781904385318| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130131224840/http://www.psypress.com/9781904385318| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2013-01-31| publisher = Routledge| page = 1}}</ref>
:1. We, the representatives of the peoples of the world, assembled in Geneva from 10–12 December 2003 for the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, declare our common desire and commitment to build a people-centered, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life, premised on the purposes and principles of the [[Charter of the United Nations]] and respecting fully and upholding the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].

:3. We reaffirm the universality, indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the [[right to development]], as enshrined in the [[Vienna Declaration]]. We also reaffirm that [[democracy]], [[sustainable development]], and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as well as good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. We further resolve to strengthen the rule of law in international as in national affairs.

The [[World Summit on the Information Society|WSIS]] Declaration of Principles makes specific reference to the importance of the right to [[freedom of expression]] in the "[[information society|Information Society]]" in stating:
:4. We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the [[information society|Information Society]], and as outlined in Article 19 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], that everyone has the right to [[Freedom of speech|freedom of opinion and expression]]; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organization. It is central to the Information Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers."<ref name="Murray"/>

A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users,<ref>For the BBC poll Internet users are those who used the Internet within the previous six months.</ref> conducted for the [[BBC World Service]] between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010 found that almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right.<ref name=BBCPoll-2010>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/08_03_10_BBC_internet_poll.pdf "BBC Internet Poll: Detailed Findings"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601163736/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/08_03_10_BBC_internet_poll.pdf |date=2013-06-01 }}, BBC World Service, 8 March 2010</ref> 50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed, 9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8548190.stm "Internet access is 'a fundamental right'"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107075123/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8548190.stm |date=2012-01-07 }}, ''BBC News'', 8 March 2010</ref>

The 88 recommendations made by the [[United Nations Special Rapporteur|Special Rapporteur]] on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a May 2011 report to the [[United Nations Human Rights Council|Human Rights Council]] of the [[United Nations General Assembly]] include several that bear on the question of the right to Internet access:<ref>[http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.27_en.pdf "VI. Conclusions and recommendations"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402152208/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.27_en.pdf |date=2012-04-02 }}, ''Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Frank La Rue'', Human Rights Council, Seventeenth session
Agenda item 3, United Nations General Assembly, 16 May 2011</ref>
:67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders. By vastly expanding the capacity of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is an "enabler" of other human rights, the Internet boosts economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of humankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate holders to engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.

:78. While blocking and filtering measures deny users access to specific content on the Internet, States have also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur considers cutting off users from Internet access, regardless of the justification provided, including on the grounds of violating intellectual property rights law, to be disproportionate and thus a violation of article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

:79. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to ensure that Internet access is maintained at all times, including during times of political unrest.

:85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all States. Each State should thus develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.

===Network neutrality===
{{Net neutrality}}
{{main |Net neutrality }}

Network neutrality (also net neutrality, Internet neutrality, or net equality) is the principle that Internet service providers and governments should treat all data on the Internet equally, not discriminating or charging differentially by user, content, site, platform, application, type of attached equipment, or mode of communication.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jthtl.org/content/articles/V2I1/JTHTLv2i1_Wu.PDF|title=Network Neutrality, Broadband Discrimination|publisher=Journal on telecom and high tech law|author=Tim Wu|year=2003|access-date=23 Apr 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424062409/http://www.jthtl.org/content/articles/V2I1/JTHTLv2i1_Wu.PDF|archive-date=2014-04-24}}</ref><ref name=kraemer-def>{{cite journal | last1 = Krämer | first1 = J | last2 = Wiewiorra | first2 = L. | last3 = Weinhardt | first3 = C. | year = 2013 | title = Net Neutrality: A progress report | url = http://www.im.uni-karlsruhe.de/Upload/Publications/336c39b3-7a62-4159-bb1a-483f39dd5b24.pdf | journal = Telecommunications Policy | volume = 37 | issue = 9 | pages = 794–813 | doi = 10.1016/j.telpol.2012.08.005 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033749/http://www.im.uni-karlsruhe.de/Upload/Publications/336c39b3-7a62-4159-bb1a-483f39dd5b24.pdf | archive-date = 2015-09-24 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.258.5878 | s2cid = 154892817 }}</ref><ref name="berners-lee-def">{{cite web |url=http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/144 |title=Net Neutrality: This is serious |access-date=26 December 2008 |last=Berners-Lee |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Berners-Lee |date=21 June 2006 |work=timbl's blog |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227100511/http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/144 |archive-date=27 December 2008 }}</ref><ref name="nn-for-google-users">{{cite web |author=Staff |url= https://www.google.com/help/netneutrality.html |title=A Guide to Net Neutrality for Google Users |access-date=7 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080901084929/https://www.google.com/help/netneutrality.html }}</ref> Advocates of net neutrality have raised concerns about the ability of broadband providers to use their [[Last mile (telecommunications)|last mile]] infrastructure to block Internet applications and content (e.g. websites, services, and protocols), and even to block out competitors.<ref>Lessig, L. 1999. [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/works/lessig/www9.pdf Cyberspace’s Architectural Constitution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225183518/http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/works/lessig/www9.pdf |date=2014-12-25 }}, draft 1.1, Text of lecture given at www9, Amsterdam, Netherlands</ref> Opponents claim net neutrality regulations would deter investment into improving broadband infrastructure and try to fix something that isn't broken.<ref name="tiaonline.org">[http://www.tiaonline.org/sites/default/files/pages/Internet_ecosystem_letter_FINAL_12.10.14.pdf "Letter to FCC commissioners and U.S. Senate and Congressional leaders expressing strong opposition to proposals to classify broadband as a 'Title II' service from a wide range of technology companies"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216163709/http://www.tiaonline.org/sites/default/files/pages/Internet_ecosystem_letter_FINAL_12.10.14.pdf |date=2015-02-16 }}, 10 December 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2015.</ref><ref name="chicagotribune.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/commentary/ct-internet-regulations-fcc-ftc-obama-broadband-perspec-0219-20150218-story.html|title=The Internet isn't broken. Obama doesn't need to 'fix' it.|author=Chicago Tribune|date=18 February 2015|work=chicagotribune.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226173240/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/commentary/ct-internet-regulations-fcc-ftc-obama-broadband-perspec-0219-20150218-story.html|archive-date=26 February 2015}}</ref> In April 2017, a recent attempt to compromise [[net neutrality in the United States]] is being considered by the newly appointed FCC chairman, [[Ajit Varadaraj Pai]].<ref name="NYT-20170429">{{cite news |author=The Editorial Board |title=F.C.C. Invokes Internet Freedom While Trying to Kill It |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/29/opinion/sunday/fcc-invokes-internet-freedom-while-trying-to-kill-it.html |date=29 April 2017 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=30 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429184910/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/29/opinion/sunday/fcc-invokes-internet-freedom-while-trying-to-kill-it.html |archive-date=29 April 2017 }}</ref> The vote on whether or not to abolish net neutrality was passed on December 14, 2017, and ended in a 3–2 split in favor of abolishing net neutrality.