Editing Spanish language (section)

== Relation to other languages ==
{{further|Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish}}
Spanish is closely related to the other [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian Romance languages]], including [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. It is somewhat less similar, to varying degrees, from other members of the [[Romance language]] family.

It is generally acknowledged that Portuguese and Spanish speakers can communicate in written form, with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jensen|1989}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|2000|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dalby|1998|p=501}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ginsburgh|Weber|2011|p=90}}</ref> [[Mutual intelligibility]] of the ''written'' Spanish and Portuguese languages is high, lexically and grammatically. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' gives estimates of the [[lexical similarity]] between related languages in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portuguese, that figure is 89%, although phonologically the two languages are quite dissimilar. Italian on the other hand, is phonologically similar to Spanish, while sharing lower lexical and grammatical similarity of 82%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and [[French language|French]] or between Spanish and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa|title=Spanish|work=Ethnologue|access-date=19 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100707/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa|archive-date=15 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=spa|title=Similar languages to Spanish|work=EZGlot|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621191245/http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=spa|archive-date=21 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication.

The following table compares the forms of some common words in several Romance languages:
<div style="overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Latin]]
! Spanish
! [[Galician language|Galician]]
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
! [[Astur-Leonese linguistic group|Astur-Leonese]]
! [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]
! [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
! [[French language|French]]
! [[Italian language|Italian]]
! [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
! [[English language|English]]
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|nōs (alterōs)}}|italic=no}}<sup>1,2</sup><br />"we (others)"
| {{lang|es|'''nosotros'''}}
| {{lang|gl|'''nós''', '''nosoutros'''}}<sup>3</sup>
| {{lang|pt|nós,  nós outros}}<sup>3</sup>
| {{lang|ast|'''nós'''}}, {{lang|ast|'''nosotros'''}}
| {{lang|an|'''nusatros'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''nosaltres'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''nós'''}})
| {{lang|fr|nous}}<sup>4</sup>
| {{lang|it|noi, noialtri}}<sup>5</sup>
| {{lang|ro|noi}}
| 'we'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|frātre(m) germānu(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"true brother"
| {{lang|es|'''hermano'''}}
| {{lang|gl|'''irmán'''}}
| {{lang|pt|irmão}}
| {{lang|ast|'''hermanu'''}}
| {{lang|an|'''chirmán'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''germà'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''frare'''}})<sup>6</sup>
| {{lang|fr|frère}}
| {{lang|it|fratello}}
| {{lang|ro|frate}}
| 'brother'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|die(m)&nbsp;mārtis}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;([[Classical Latin|Classical]])<br />"day of Mars"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|tertia(m)&nbsp;fēria(m)}}|italic=no}} ([[Late Latin|Late&nbsp;Latin]])<br />"third (holi)day"
| {{lang|es|'''martes'''}}
| {{lang|gl|'''Martes''', '''Terza&nbsp;Feira'''}}
| {{lang|pt|Terça-Feira}}
| {{lang|ast|'''Martes'''}}
| {{lang|an|'''Martes'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''Dimarts'''}}
| {{lang|fr|Mardi}}
| {{lang|it|Martedì}}
| {{lang|ro|Marți}}
| 'Tuesday'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|cantiōne(m)}}<br />{{smallcaps|canticu(m)}}|italic=no}}
| {{lang|es|'''canción'''}}<sup>7</sup><br />(arch. {{lang|es|'''cançón'''}})
| {{lang|gl|'''canción''', '''cançom'''}}<sup>8</sup>
| {{lang|pt|canção}}
| {{lang|ast|'''canción'''}}<br />(also {{lang|ast|'''canciu'''}})
| {{lang|an|'''canta'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''cançó'''}}
| {{lang|fr|chanson}}
| {{lang|it|canzone}}
| {{lang|ro|cântec}}
| 'song'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|magis}}|italic=no}}<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|plūs}}|italic=no}}
| {{lang|es|'''más'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|es|'''plus'''}})
| {{lang|gl|'''máis'''}}
| {{lang|pt|mais}}
| {{lang|ast|'''más'''}}
| {{lang|an|'''más'''}}<br />(also {{lang|an|'''més'''}})
| {{lang|ca|'''més'''}}<br />(arch. {{lang|ca|'''pus'''}} or {{lang|ca|'''plus'''}})
| {{lang|fr|plus}}
| {{lang|it|più}}
| {{lang|ro|mai}}
| 'more'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|manu(m)&nbsp;sinistra(m)}}|italic=no}}
| {{lang|es|'''mano&nbsp;izquierda'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|es|'''mano&nbsp;siniestra'''}})
| {{lang|gl|'''man&nbsp;esquerda'''}}<sup>9</sup>
| {{lang|pt|mão&nbsp;esquerda}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|pt|mão&nbsp;sẽestra}})
| {{lang|ast|'''manu&nbsp;izquierda'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(or&nbsp;{{lang|ast|'''esquierda'''}};<br />also {{lang|ast|'''manzorga'''}})
| {{lang|an|'''man&nbsp;cucha'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''mà&nbsp;esquerra'''}}<sup>9</sup><br />(arch.&nbsp;{{lang|ca|'''mà&nbsp;sinistra'''}})
| {{lang|fr|main&nbsp;gauche}}
| {{lang|it|mano&nbsp;sinistra}}
| {{lang|ro|mâna&nbsp;stângă}}
| 'left&nbsp;hand'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|rēs, rĕm}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;"thing"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|nūlla(m)&nbsp;rem nāta(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"no born thing"<br />{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|mīca(m)}}|italic=no}}&nbsp;"crumb"
| {{lang|es|'''nada'''}}
| {{lang|gl|'''nada'''}}<br />(also {{lang|gl|'''ren'''}} and {{lang|gl|'''res'''}})
| {{lang|pt|nada (arch. rés)}}
| {{lang|ast|'''nada'''}}<br />(also {{lang|ast|'''un res'''}})
| {{lang|an|'''cosa'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''res'''}}
| {{lang|fr|rien, nul}}
| {{lang|it|niente, nulla}}<br />{{lang|it|mica}} (negative particle)
| {{lang|ro|nimic, nul}}
| 'nothing'
|-
| {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|cāseu(m) fōrmāticu(m)}}|italic=no}}<br />"form-cheese"
| {{lang|es|'''queso'''}}
| {{lang|gl|'''queixo'''}}
| {{lang|pt|queijo}}
| {{lang|ast|'''quesu'''}}
| {{lang|an|'''queso'''}}
| {{lang|ca|'''formatge'''}}
| {{lang|fr|fromage}}
| {{lang|it|formaggio/cacio}}
| {{lang|ro|caș}}<sup>10</sup>
| 'cheese'
|}</div>
<small>
1. In Romance etymology, Latin terms are given in the Accusative since most forms derive from this case.<br />
2. As in "us very selves", an emphatic expression.<br />
3. Also {{lang|pt|nós outros}} in early modern Portuguese (e.g. ''[[The Lusiads]]''), and {{lang|gl|nosoutros}} in Galician.<br />
4. Alternatively {{lang|fr|nous autres}} in [[French language|French]].<br />
5. {{lang|it|noialtri}} in many Southern [[List of languages of Italy|Italian dialects and languages]].<br />
6. Medieval Catalan (e.g. ''[[Llibre dels fets]]'').<br />
7. Modified with the learned suffix ''-ción''.<br />
8. Depending on the written norm used (see [[Reintegrationism]]).<br />
9. From [[Basque language|Basque]] ''esku'', "hand" + ''erdi'', "half, incomplete". This negative meaning also applies for Latin ''sinistra(m)'' ("dark, unfortunate").<br />
10. Romanian ''caș'' (from Latin {{smallcaps|cāsevs}}) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is ''brânză'' (from unknown etymology).<ref>Often considered to be a substratum word. Other theories suggest, on the basis of what is used to make cheese, a derivation from Latin ''brandeum'' (originally meaning a linen covering, later a thin cloth for relic storage) through an intermediate root *''brandea''. For the development of the meaning, cf. Spanish ''manteca'', Portuguese ''manteiga'', probably from Latin ''mantica'' ('sack'), Italian ''formaggio'' and French ''fromage'' from ''formaticus''. [http://dexonline.ro./definitie/brânză Romanian Explanatory Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134722/https://dexonline.ro/definitie/br%C3%A2nz%C4%83 |date=18 February 2020}}</ref>
</small>

=== Judaeo-Spanish ===
{{Further|Judaeo-Spanish}}
[[File:Rashiscript.PNG|thumb|The [[Rashi script]], originally used to print Judaeo-Spanish]]
[[File:Delacroix letter.png|thumb|upright=0.85|An original letter in Haketia, written in 1832]]

Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,<ref name="Ladino">{{cite web |last=Alfassa |first=Shelomo |title=Ladinokomunita |url=http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html |date=December 1999 |publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture |access-date=4 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402055529/http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html |archive-date=2 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and some old Portuguese and is spoken by descendants of the [[Sephardi Jews]] who were [[Alhambra decree|expelled from Spain in the 15th century]].<ref name="Ladino" /> While in Portugal the conversion of Jews occurred earlier and the assimilation of [[New Christians]] was overwhelming, in Spain the Jews kept their language and identity. The relationship of Ladino and Spanish is therefore comparable with that of the [[Yiddish language]] to [[German language|German]]. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively [[Sephardim|Sephardi]] Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkey, and the United States, with a few communities in Hispanic America.<ref name="Ladino" /> Judaeo-Spanish lacks the [[Amerindian languages|Native American vocabulary]] which was acquired by standard Spanish during the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonial period]], and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], French, Greek and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and other languages spoken where the Sephardim settled.

Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly ''olim'' (immigrants to [[Israel]]) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In Hispanic American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to assimilation by modern Spanish.

A related dialect is [[Haketia]], the Judaeo-Spanish of northern [[Morocco]]. This too, tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region.